-^

ANNUAL RECORD

OF

SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

Annual Record of Science and Industry for 18*76. Prepared by
Spencer F. Baird, Assistant-Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, with the Assistance of some of the most Eminent Men of
Science in the United States. Large 12mo, Cloth, |2 00.

Uniform with the volumes of the Annual Record of Science
and Industry for IS'Zl, 1872, 1873, 1874, 1875.

These Six Volumes constitute a complete and continuous His-
tory OF THE Progress op Science and Industry for the last
Six Years. Price |2 00 per volume.

Published by HARPER & BROTHERS, Xew York.

Harper & Brothers will send any of these volumes by mail, postar/e
X>repaid, to any part of the United States or Canada, on receipt (f $2 00.

/

/

ANNUAL RECORD

OP

SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY

FOR 1876.

EDITED BY

SPENCER F. BAIED,

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF EMINENT MEN OP SCIENCE.

<^

<iiiit'i^

NEW YORK:

HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,

F R A X K L I X SQUARE.

1877.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1877, by

Harper & Brothers,

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

PREFACE.

The present volume of the " Annual Record of Science
and Industry " constitutes the sixth of the series, and is in-
tended to present an intelligible and popular account of
the more important facts of progress in the various depart-
ments of the physical and natural sciences, and their ap-
plications to the conveniences and luxuries of mankind.

Its distinguishing features, as compared with other
works intended to answer the same general purpose, are
as follows:

First, a series of summaries of progress in the different
branches of physical, natural, and industrial science, pre-
pared by a number of the most eminent specialists in the
United States, whose collaboration the editor has been so
fortunate as to secure.

Second, a series of abstracts, more or less systematically
arranged, of special papers, memoirs, or other publications,
by various writers, and with references to the title, volume,
and page of the source of information ; these abstracts
very rarely being transcripts from the original, but digests
in which only the points of special novelty and interest
are presented, with omission of irrelevant matter, and not
unfrequently with critical remarks and elucidations. These
have been for the most part edited and prepared by the
specialists referred to.

Third, a list of the losses in scientific circles by death
during the year.

Fourth, a list of the more important publications in
science for the year embraced within the scope of the
Record^ with references to ci'itical notices, serving as a
guide to students and purchasers of books. In connection

(ii) PEEFACE.

with this is a list of tlie principal serial works from which
extracts or quotations are to be fonnd in the volume.

Fifth, an extremely minnte alphabetical index of authors
and subjects.

Sixthj a systematic and analytical table of contents, by
means of which reference can readily be made to whatever
the volume contains, bearing upon any particular line of
inquiry.

Seventh, in compliance with a generally expressed wish,
the names of the authors of the different portions of the
Scientific Summary are given for the first time in the
present volume of the Hecord, in connection with their
respective communications, all of them men occupjdng the
front rank in America as authors and investigators. Other
collaborators not contributors to the first division of the
volume are Professor C. F. Ilimes, of Dickinson College,
Carlisle, Pa. ; Professor F. W. Clarke, of the University of
Cincinnati; Professor E.D. Cope, of Philadelphia; Profess-
or F.Y. Ilayden; Major J.W. Powell; Lieutenant George
M.Wheeler, U. S. A., and several others who prefer to re-
main un mentioned.

It will be readily understood that the present volume
is prepared for the general public, who desire to become
acquainted with the more prominent steps of advancement
during the year, without the trouble of resorting to the
sources of original information concerning the same.
Specialists may find little or nothing in it to merit their
attention, and, indeed, they may naturally be inclined to
criticise the work for not being more complete. It must
be borne in mind, however, that the work is limited in
extent, and that, in view of the enormous subdivision of
labor at present in the line of scientific investigation, any
attempt at exhaustiveness w^ould involve a vast increase in
the size of the book. At the present time there is scarcely
a branch of science which is without one or more journals
as its organs and an annual record devoted exclusively to
its history; and to these reference should be made for
more minute information. It is hoped, however, that but
little of general or popular interest has been overlooked.

PREFACE. (iii)

In the selection for the Scientific Bibliography the
editor has been chiefly guided by the commendatory no-
tices which have appeared in the more prominent scientific
journals of the day, and references to the pages of the
journals wherein the works catalogued and I'eviewed are
^iven. As the journals in question are generally easily
accessible, the reader is thus furnished with a trustworthy
guide in his selection of books.

Spencek F. Baied.

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, March 1, 1877.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PREFACE Page (i)

PART I.

GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS

DURING TUE YEAR 1876.

ASTRONOMY. By Edward S. Holdex, Professor of Mathematics,

United States Navy xvii

METEOROLOGY AND TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS. By Clevela>^d

Abbe xxvii

GENERAL PHYSICS. By George F. Barker, Professor of Physics in

the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia xl v

CHEMISTRY. By George F. Barker, Professor of Physics in the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Ixx

MINERALOGY. By Edward S. Dana, Ph.D., Yale College, New Ha-
ven Ixxxiv

GEOLOGY. By T. Sterry Hunt, LL.D., r.R.S., Professor of Geology,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston Ixxxix

GEOGRAPHY. By Lieutenant-Commander F. M. Green, U. S. N cv

HYDROGRAPHY. By Lieutenant-Commander F. M. Green, U. S. N. . . cxx

ANTHROPOLOGY. By Otis T. Mason, Columbian University, Wash-
ington CXXIX

GENERAL ZOOLOGY. I. By Dr. A. S. Packard, Jr cxliv

II. By Prof. Theo. N. Gill.

INVERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY. By Dr. A. S. Packard, Jr cli

VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY. By Prof. Theo. N. Gill clxvi

1

ii' TABLE OF CONTEXTS.

BOTANY. By "W. G. Farlow, M.D clxxv

AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY. By Prof. W. O. Atwatek. clxxxi

INDUSTRL\L STATISTICS. By Wm. H. Wahl cxciv

INDEX TO SUMMARY ccxxxi

PAET 11.

ABSTRACTS OF SCIENTIFIC A\D HDUSTRIAL ARTICLES.^-

A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY (xvii) 1

(a.) MATHEMATICS.

On the Cissoid of Diodes, 1 ; Theorem in the Equilibrium of Forces, 2 ;
the Value of the Dozen, 2 ; the Law of Reciprocity of Prime Numbers, 3 ;
Hyperbolic Functions, 4 ; Curious Curves and Equations. 4 ; List of Loga-
rithmic Tables, 43; Calculating Machines, 43; Somoff's Barycentric Theo-
rem, 54.

(b.) ASTRONOMY.

Interstellar Space : The Resisting Medium Existing in Space, 49. The
Nebulae : Vogel's Positions of Clusters and Nebulas, 15 ; Supposed Changes
in the Omega Nebula, 16 ; on the Spectra of the Nebulae, 26 ; Exact Ob-
servations of Nebulae, 50. The Stars : The Rugby (Temple Observatory)
and Mr. Gledhill's Catalogues of Double Stars, 17 ; on the Orbit of the
Double Star Sigma 634, 18 ; the Companion of Sirius, 18 ; the Variable Star
Beta Persei (Algol), 19 ; Proper Motions of Southern Stars, 22 ; Colors of
Double Stars, 17; Orbit of the Binary Star Gamma Coronae Australis, 22;
Orbit of the Binary Star 70 (p) Ophiuchi, 23; the Double Star Beta Lepo-
ris, 23; on a Classification of Double Stars, 24; on the Double Star 61
Cygni, 24; an Ancient Discovery of a Variable Star, 81 : on the Parallax
of 1830 Groombridge. 32 ; Special Treatise on Double Stars, 44 ; the Third
RadcliflTe Catalogue of Stars, 45 ; Cincinnati Catalogue of New Double Stars,
47; Spectrum Observations of the Stars, 48; Fundamental Stars Observed
at Harvard College Observatory, 53 ; Variable Stars v, w, and x Sagittarii,
54. The Solar System: The Motion of Stars to or from the Earth, 19;
Motion of the Solar System in Space, 49. The Sun : Correlation of Solar
and Terrestrial Phenomena, 8 ; Conflicting Views of Secchi and Langley in
Regard to the Sun, 9; on an Ancient Eclipse of the Sun, 10; Total Solar
Eclipse of December 11, 1871, 11 ; the Solar Eclipse of April 16, 1874, 58;

* In the arrangement of articles in the body of the Record, it was found impracti-
cable to place them in proper systematic sequence, especially as many belonged as
much to one division as to another, sometimes even to three or four equally. The
present systematic Table is intended to remedy the difficult}-, by bringing together in
proper order all the titles of articles, and, by a system of cross references and dupli-
cations, to point out all matter relating to any one subject, whatever be its situation
in the volume. The references in Eoman letters preceding the page references of the
headings relate to the pages of the introductory "Summary."'

TABLE OF CONTENTS. iii

on the Temperature of the Solar Spots, 12 ; Solar Spots and Terrestrial
Phenomena, 13 ; on the Relative Temperature of Various Portions of the
Sun, 13 ; the Absorption of the Solar Atmosphere, 15 ; the Solar Atmos-
phere and Radiated Heat, 40 ; tlie Coronal-line 1-474 I; 44 ; the Solar Paral-
lax, 51 ; Solar Spots, 53 ; the Solar Spots and Protuberances of the Sun from
1871 to 1875, 55; Spectroscopic Diameter of the Sun, 57; Photographs
of the Solar Corona, 60 ; Connection between Solar Spots and Terrestrial
Electricity, 122. The Planets : Dimensions of the Satellites of Jupiter,
21 ; on Physical Observations of the Planet Jupiter, 26 ; on the Brightness
of the Satellites of Jupiter, 27 ; Theory of the Satellites of Jupiter, 32 ; the
Satellites of Saturn, 21 ; the Atmosphere of Yenus, 27 ; the Uranian and
Neptunian Systems, 34 ; Supposed Observation of an Inter-mercurial Plan-
et, 46; the Inner Satellites of Uranus, 52; Theory of Planetary Perturba-
tions, 25 ; Diameters of the Inferior Planets as Affected by Diffraction, 29 ;
Movement of a Planet in a Resisting Medium, 33. The Moon : The Lunar
Theory, 38 ; Lunar iMaps, 45 ; Relation of the Phases of the Moon to At-
mospheric Pressure, 133 Meteoroids or Shooting-stars : On Observations
of Shooting-stars from Balloons, 14; Observations on the Shooting-stars
of the 10th of August, 1875, 14 ; Meteors of August 10th and 11th, 1875, 28 ;
Spectra of the Gases Contained in Meteorites, 28. Comets ; The Comet
III., 1862, 35 ; Orbit of Comet II., 1840, 36 ; on the Calculation of the Ab-
solute Perturbations of Comets, 36 ; Spectrum of Coggia's Comet, 37 ; the
Periodic Comet of D'Arrest, 37 ; Identity of Comet YIL, 1873 (Coggia), with
Comet L, 1818 (Pons), 57. The Aurora and Zodiacal Light : Observa-
tions on the Zodiacal Light, 35 ; Magnetism and the Aurora, 75 ; Periodic-
ity of the Aurora, 96 ; on the Height of the Aurora Borealis, 132, Miscel-
laneous : On Terrestrial Refraction, 6 ; Celestial Photometry, 7 ; on the
Theory of the Aberration of Light, 8; Correlation of Solar and Terrestrial
Phenomena, 8 ; Prizes Proposed for Astronomical Works in 1876, 52 ; the
Lalande Prize, 52 ; Alsibility of Stars in the Daytime, 64. Observatories
and Instruments, and their Uses, Time, etc. : Dijllen's jNlethod of De-
termining Local Time, 5 ; Accuracy of Chronometers, 6 ; Distribution of
Standard Time in Switzerland, 41 ; Egyptian Chronology, 42 ; Distribution
of Public Time throughout the World, 60 ; IMeasure of Time by Hour-
glasses, 64 ; Astronomical Observations at Mannheim, 38 ; Astronomical
Observations at Milan, 38 ; the Spectroscopic Observatory at Calcutta, 40 ;
Glass Divided Circles for the Measurement of Angles, 46 ; List of Latitude
Stars employed in the Coast Survey, 47 ; Publications of the Observatory
of Bothkamp, 51 ; the Solar Observatory at Potsdam, 56 ; a New Meridian
Instrument at the Observatory at Rio, 57 ; the great Paris Telescope, 39 ;
large Telescopes, 40.

B. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY (xxvii) 65

(a.) TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS (including Dyuamical Geology).

The Land : Origin of Yolcanic Ashes, 66 ; Formation of Basalt Columns,
70; Earthquakes in Italy, 72; Abnormal Deflections of the Plumb-line,
67; Underground Temperatures, 69; the Internal Heat of the Earth, 74;
on the Power of Leaves to Absorb and Radiate Heat, 76; on the Tempera-
ture of the Soil, 77 ; the Temperature of the Earth, 98 ; the Internal Tern-

ivr TABLE OF CONTENTS.

perature of the Earth. 119; Earth Temperature at Konigsberg, 120; Noc-
turnal Radiation, 72 ; Changes in the Earth's Axis of Rotation, 78 ; the In-
tensity of Twilight, 99 ; on the Quantity of Light Reflected by the Sky in
the Daytime, 99; the Interior Structure of the Earth, 121 ; Correlation of
Solar and Terrestrial Phenomena, 8 ; Change of Texture in Sandstone by
Heat, 146; the Absorption of Solar Heat by the Atmosphere, 150; Tem-
perature Observations in Itah^, 128 ; Connection between Solar Spots and
Terrestrial Electricity, 122 ; Magnetic Observations in the Indian Ocean,
162 ; Magnetic Map of France, 162 ; on the Deviation of the Compass, 162 ;
Influence of Forests on Water-flow and Atmospheric Moisture, 77. The
Interior Waters : The Temperature within the Great Geyser of Iceland,
109 ; River Currents as Affected by the Earth's Rotation, 119 ; the Thermal
Springs of the United States, 121 ; the Diminution of Water in Springs,
Rivers, and Wells, 131. The Ocean: Mechanical Theory of Ocean Cur-
rents, 65 ; the Temperature of the Sea, 66 ; on the Temperature of the Med-
iterranean Sea near the Coast of Algeria, 69 ; the Force of Sea Weaves, 123 ;
Eifect of Tides on the Rotation of the Earth, 130; Deep-sea Soundings by
Photography, 151.
(b.) METEOROLOGY.

General Climatology : Meteorology in Germany, 78 ; Meteorology of the
Sieben-Gebirge, 79 ; Award to the Army Signal Service, 109 ; the Climate
Preceding the Glacial Epoch, 110; the Climate and Trees of Sacramento
Bay, 111; Climatic Changes in Scotland, 116; Climate of the Caucasus,
123; the Winds and Rains of India, 126; Rainfall, Winds, and Pressure in
Italy, 129 ; Constitution of the Atmosphere over the Libyan Desert, 130 ;
Magnetic Particles in Atmospheric Dust, 132 ; on the Height of the Aurora
Borealis, 132 ; Iron in Atmospheric Dust, 133. Atmospheric Electricity :
Dry Thunder-storms, 128; Frequency of Thunder-storms in Europe, 129;
Atmospheric Electricity^, 170 ; Lightning from a Clear Sky, 171 ; Protec-
tion against Lightning Strokes, 171 ; Lightning-conductors, 172. Atmos-
pheric Pressure and the "Winds : The Hurricane of September 9th to
17th, 1875, 97 ; Wind Velocity and the Barometric Gradient, 100 ; the Me-
chanical Theory of Cyclones, 101 ; the Monsoon, 102 ; Origin of Cold Waves
of Air, 104 ; the Upper Currents of the Atmosphere, 106 ; Periodicity of
Hurricanes, 112 ; the Severe Storm of March 12, 1876, 114 ; Barometric
Pressure during Winds, 115; the Eastward Progress of Storms, 124; Hail-
storms in France, 125 ; Origin of Cyclones, 127 ; the Bora of Southern Rus-
sia, 129; Relation of the Phases of the Moon to Atmospheric Pressure, 133.
Temperature : Nocturnal Radiation, 72 ; the Temperature of the Air,
105; Temperature Observations in Italy, 129; Schott's Tables of Atmos-
pheric Temperature, 134. Moisture : Rainfall of Bohemia, 93 ; IMoisture
in the Atmosphere, 94 ; the Observation of Polar Bands, 95 ; the Direction
of Cirrus Clouds, 98; Tables for Computation of Relative Humidity, 110;
Clouds and Winds as Observed from Balloons, 112; Dufour's Hygrometric
Studies, 113; the Formation of Snow as Observed from Balloons, 118; Red
Snow on the Pic-du-lNIidi, 125; Dalton's Law, and the Constitution of the
Atmosphere, 105. Observatories and Instruments : Time of Setting Self-
registering Instruments, 95 ; on the Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometer, 96 ;
the New Physical Observatory near St. Petersburg, 96 ; a very Delicate

TABLE OF CONTENTS. V

Barometer, 108 ; Convenient Form of Mercurial Barometer, 108 ; Improve-
ment in Aneroids, 111 ; Hipp's Anemometer, 113 ; the Aneroid Barometer,
116 ; a New Form of HN^grometer, 118.

C. PHYSICS (xlv) 135

General : The Relation between Gravitation and Energy, 135 ; Thomson's
Dead-beat Arrangement for Chemical Balances, 135 ; Simple Dynamome-
ter, 135 ; on the Elasticity of Rock-salt, 136 ; " Flow " of Metals, 137 ; Plas-
ticity of Ice, 137 ; Plastico-Dynamics, 138 ; an Experiment in Instantane-
ous Crystallization, 138 ; Frictional Resistance of Water to Motion of Ves-
sels, 139 ; the Movements of Waves and Vessels at Sea, 140 ; Vibration of
Fluid Columns, 140 ; on the Theory of the Flow of Water or Gas, 141 ; Hy-
draulic Investigations in India, 141; Gauss' Theory of Capillarity, 142;
Lippmann's Experiments on Capillary Attraction and his Electro-capillary
Motor, 142 ; on the Elasticity of Gases, 143 ; the Elasticity of Purified Air,
143 ; Air Pushed in Front of a Projectile, 144 ; on the Propulsion of Air by
a Jet of Air or Vapor, 144 ; Surface Tension of Liquids, 173 ; Metallic Fil-
tration, 174 ; Resistance of the Electric Arc, 175 ; Amalgamation of Iron,
177.

Sound : Extending the Compass and Increasing the Tone of Stringed
Instruments, 145 ; Musical Sand, 179 ; Cause of Sound in Organ-pipes, 179 ;
Obliteration of One Sound by Another, 181.

Light: The Mathematical Theory of Light, 151; Deep-sea Sound-
ing by Photography, 151 ; Dispersion of Light by Prisms, 152 ; Spec-
trum Dispersion of Gases, 153; Improved Spectroscopes, 153; Spectrum
Apparatus at Potsdam, 154 ; Atmospheric Lines of the Solar Spectrum,
154 ; Spectra of the Gases contained in Meteorites, 28 ; Spectrum of Cog-
gia's Comet, 57 ; the Coronal-line 1474 h, 44 ; Spectrum Observations of
the Stars, 48 ; the Spectroscopic Observatory at Calcutta, 40 ; Celestial Pho-
tometry, 7 ; on the Theory of the Aberration of Light, 8 ; Optical Notes
by Mr. Lea, 155 ; Method of Estimating Color in Water, 156 ; Fluorescence
of Solutions in Castor-oil, 150 ; Theories of Magnetism and Light, 157 ;
Action of Light on Ebonite, 176; the Dietheroscope, 187; Improved Mode
of Mounting Microscopic Objects, 188 ; the Gramme Light in Railroad De-
pots, 190.

Heat : Conduction of Heat by Building Materials, 145 ; Change of Text-
ure in Sandstone by Heat, 140 ; Antiquity of the Burning Mirror, 146 ; Ob-
servations upon Radiometers, 146 ; Observations on the Theory of Crooke's-
Radiometers, 146 ; the Mechanical Production of Cold, 147 ; a New Ice Cal-
orimeter, 148 ; Experiments upon Non-luminous Flames, 149 ; Influence of
Pressure on Combustion, 150 ; the Absorption of Solar Heat by the Atmos-
phere, 150 ; New Metallic Pyrometer, 182 ; Conduction of Heat in Gases,
183 ; Cremation in France, 185.

Electricity and Magnetism : Theories of Magnetism and Light, 157 ;
the Influence of Armatures upon INIagnets, 158 ; Formation of Natural INIag-
nets, 158; the Distribution of Magnetism in a IMagnet, 159; on the Distri-
bution of Magnetism in short thick Magnets, 159 ; on Magnets composed
of Compressed Powder, 100 ; on the Distribution of Magnetism in Bundles
of infinitely long, very thin Plates of Iron, 161 ; IMagnetic Observations in

vi TABLE OF CONTENTS.

the Indian Ocean, 162 ; Magnetic Map of France, 162 ; on the Deviation
of the Compass, 162 ; Deviation of the Compass in Iron Ships, 163 ; New
Eelation between Electricity and Light, 163; Electricity from Dipping
Metals in Fluids, 163 ; Priority of Discovery of the Principle of the Gramme
Machine, 164 ; the Gramme Electric Machine, 165 ; a New Theory of Gal-
vanic Resistance, 165 ; on the Influence of Light upon the Conductivity of
Crystalline Selenium, 166 ; Conduction of Electricity by Compounds of
Sulphur, 166 ; on the Glow due to Galvanic Currents, 166 ; Curious Elec-
trical Light, 167 ; Phenomena attending Electric Discharges, 167; Duplex
Telegraphy, 168; the Double-balance Method in Duplex Telegraphy, 169;
Schwendler's Method in Duplex Telegraphy, 169; New Electric Appara-
tus for Railroads, 170; East Indian Telegraphy, 170 ; Curious Japanese Cora-
pass, 188; Claraond's Thermo-electric Battery, 189; Magnetism of Cobalt
and Nickel, 192.

D. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY (Ixx) 193

Hon-metallic Elements Wate?^: Decomposition of Water, 195; Decom-
position of Water by Platinum, 195 ; Cryohydrates, 195 ; Hydrogen: Oc-
cluded H5'^drogen in so-called Explosive Antimony, 193; Natural Develop-
ment of Sulphuretted Hydrogen, 196; Ozone: Determination of Ozone in
the Air, 194; Non-oxidation of Carbonic Oxide by Ozone, 213; Thermo-
chemistry of Ozone, 216; Carbon: Carbon from the Roof of a Gas-retort,
19S; Liquid Carbon Dioxide in Mineral Cavities, 198 ; Carbon Monosul-
phide, 199 ; Bisulphide of Carbon as an Antiseptic, 207 ; on the Gases In-
closed in Coal, 209; on the Hydrocarbons of Coal Gas, 214; Nitrogen: Ac-
tion of Nitric Acid on Metals, 197; Schonbein's Test for Nitrates, 210;
Ammonia: Ammonia in Sulphuric Acid, 196; Ammonium Nitrite, 197;
Action of Nitric Acid on Metals, 197 ; Bromine: American Bromine, 194;
Sulphur: Carbon Monosulphide, 199; Bisulphide of Carbon as an Antisep-
tic, 207 ; a New Oxide of Sulphur, 211 ; Phosi^horus : Constitution of Phos-
phorus Oxychloride, 198 ; Arsenic: Medico-legal Examination of Arsenic,
217.

Metallic Elements Sodium : Manufacture of Soda from Sea-weed, 200 ;
Zi>w: Desilverization of Argentiferous Zinc, 204; Cerium: Atomic Weight
of Cerium, 201; the Cerium Metals, 201; Cerium, Lanthanum, and Didy-
mium, 201; Iron and Steel: Experiments on Steel, 202; Influence of For-
eign Ingredients upon the Physical Properties of Steel, 202; Copper: On
the Fusibility, etc., of Alloj'S of Silver and Copper, 205 ; Silver : Desilveri-
zation of Argentiferous Zinc, 204 ; on the Fusibility, etc., of Alloys of Silver
and Copper, 205 ; Vanadium : Discovery of Vanadic Acid in Magnetic Iron,
198; Platinum: Pure Platinum and Iridium, 206; Corrosion of Platinum
Stills by Sulphuric Acid, 212; Osmium and Ii-idium : Osmium, 206; Gold:
A New Test for Gold, 205; Gallium, 203, 204; Alloys: On the FusibiHty,
etc., of Alloys of Silver and Copper, 205.

Organic Chemistry Cyanogen: A New Class of Cj^anides, 199; Cai--
holic Acid: Manufacture of Carbolic Acid, 207; Brucine and Strychnine :
Conversion of Brucine into Strychnine, 207 ; Oleandrine, 207 ; Hydrocellu-
lose,2l\; Coffee: Detecting Adulterations in Coffee, 208.

Miscellaneous : Chemical Action of Solar Ravs, 193 ; Bisulphide of Car-

1*

TABLE OF CONTENTS. vii

bon as an Antiseptic, 207 ; Schonbein's Test for Nitrates, 210 ; Medico-
legal Examination of Arsenic, 217 ; Physical Isomerism, 215.

E. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY 219

(a.) MINERALOGY. (Ixxxiv)

General: Thermo-electric Properties of Minerals, 219; Minute Work in
Mineralogj', 219 ; Mineral Statistics of the Colony of Victoria, 220. Spe-
cies : Daubreite, 220; Garnierite and Noumeite, 221; Siderazot, a Ncav
Mineral, 221 ; Friedelite, 221 ; Kaolin in Nebraslia, 221 ; Melanophlogite
and JSrinite, 222 ; Mexican Onyx, 222 ; Ncav Vanadium Minerals, 222 ;
Achrematite, 223 ; New Minerals, 223 ; Dredging for Amber, 224 ; Interest-
ing Iron Meteorite, 224; an Interesting Aerolite, 225; Composition of Cor-
al, 226 ; Volcanic Dust, 227 ; the Borax Lake of California, 223.

(b.) GEOLOGY. (Ixxxix)

Boring for Coal, 225; Coal-tields of Spain, 226; Sections of Coal, 226;
Volcanic History of Ireland, 227 ; Elevation of the Pacific Coast of South
America in Recent Times, 228; the Glacial Epoch in the Rocky Mount-
ains, 228 ; Sub-alpine Lake Basins due to Glacial Erosion, 229 ; the Dep-
osition of Fine Sediments, 229; Formation of Flood -marks and Gravel
Banks, 230.

F. GEOGRAPHY (cv, cxx) 231

(a.) GEODESY.

Aneroids and Hypsomctry, 231 ; New Hypsometric Tables, 231 ; New Form
of Mercurial Horizon, 232 ; Correction of Assumed Altitudes in the United
States, 233.

(b.) EXPLORATIONS AND RESEARCHES.

The Bathometer of Dr. C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., 235 ; Work accomplished by
the Challenger, 240; Swedish Arctic Explorations to 1875, 241; Explora-
tions made under the Direction of F. V. Hayden in 1876, 242 ; Exploration
of the Rocky IMountain Region by J. W. Powell, 255 ; Explorations in 1876
of Lieut. George M. Wheeler, U. S. E., 263.

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY (cxliv) 265

(a.) NATURAL HISTORY IN GENERAL.

Microscopy: Prof. Abbe on the Microscope, 265 ; Limit of Visibility in the
Microscope, 265 ; Sorby's Apparatus for Measuring Bands in Spectra, 266 :
Nobert's Test-plate, 267 ; Moller's Probe-PIatte, 267 ; Nobert's Test-plates,
267 ; Spectroscopic Examination of Blood-stains, 270 ; Microscopic Deter-
mination of Blood-stains, 270 ; Air Germs, 272 ; Polarizing Crystals, 272 ;
Origin of the Red Clay of Deep-sea Soinidings, 273 ; Sorby on Limits of
Vision, 273; Helmholtz on Limits of Vision, 274; Frustula *Saa-o?'ca, 341 ;
Aulacodiscus Oregonus, 341 ; Eozoon Canadense, 341 ; Fusisporum Solaria,
341 ; Diatoms in the Cuticle of Wheat Straw, 342 ; Cleaning Foraminifera,
342 ; Bathybius, 342 ; Professor T. Rupert Jones on the Foraminifera, 343 ;
Reclamation by Dr. Carpenter, 344 ; Professor Huxley on Deep-sea Sound-
ings, 344 ; Cephalosiplwn and a New Infusorian, 345 ; the Fresh-water Rhiz-
opods, 345. Darwinism : Cope's Theory of Evolution, 276 ; Cephalization

yiii TABLE OF CONTENTS.

a Fundamental Principle in the Development of Animals, 278 ; Origin of
the Sexes in Vegetables and Animals, 280; Archebiosis, 281 ; Evolution of
the Horse, 281 ; Mimicry in Butterflies explained by Natural Selection,
283. Miscellaneous : The Border-line between Plants and Animals, 280 ;
Action of Ozone-water on the Lower Organisms, 287.

(b.) ZOOLOGY IN GENERAL.

Taxidermy : Preservation of Entomological Specimens, 275. Aquaria :
On the Management of Aquaria, 307 ; Pecuniary Success of the Brighton
Aquarium, 307 ; New Aquarium at Westminster, 308. Miscellaneous :
Professor Marsh's Paleontological Discoveries, 282; Embryological Data
for the Classification of Vertebrates, 296 ; New Hand-book of Paleontology,
297 ; Summary of Marsh's Recent Discoveries, 297.

(C.) FAUNAS.

The Triassic Fauna of Illinois, 300.

(d.) ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY IN GENERAL.

The Nervous System : Nature of the Invertebrate Brain, 287. The Cir-
culation : Blood-corpuscles of the Batrachia, 274 ; Conversion of Arterial
into Venous Blood, 284; Do Acids Coagulate the Blood? 284; Causes and
Mechanism of the Coagulation of Fluids, 285 ; Photographs of the Blood,
308. The Digestive Apparatus : Nature of Gases Discharged from the
Stomach, 285. General : Physiological Action of Alcohol, 286 ; the Effect
of the Pressure of the Air upon Human Life, 288 ; Lubbock on the Senses
of Insects, 288 ; the Sense of Smell in Insects, 290 ; Migrations of the Lem-
ming, 299.

(e.) VERTEBRATES IN GENERAL.
Parthenogenesis in Vertebrates, 275.

(f.) MAMMALS.

General Anthropology : Jade and Nephrite in their Relations to Man,
295. Man in the Old World : Use of the Baton among Ancient Egj'p-
tians and Jews, 291 ; Skeletons of Pile-dwelling Inhabitants, 292 ; New Hy-
pothesis in Regard to Swiss Lake Dwellings, 292 ; Did Man Exist in the
Tertiary Period of Europe ? 293 ; Laurium Silver Mine, 293 ; Female Cloth-
ing in the Bronze Period, 294 ; Ethnological Explorations around the North
Cape, 296. Man in the New World : Man in the Post-pliocene of Buenos
Ayres, 293.

Other Mammals : Evolution of the Horse, 281 ; the Siberian Mammoth,
297 : Remains of the Irish Elk, 300 ; Revision of the Glires, 301 ; Marsh
on the Brontotheridas, 301 ; Rapid Destruction of the Buffalo, 302 ; Geo-
graphical Variation among North American Mammals, especially in Re-
spect to Size, 302 ; Fossil Elephants, Dogs, and Deer of New Mexico, 303 ;
New Extinct Wolf and Deer from the Upper Mississippi, 303 ; Probable
Extinction of the Elephant, 304 ; a New California Deer, 304 ; a New Por-
poise in New York Bay, 304.

(g.) BIRDS.

Coloring Matter of the Eggs of Birds, 304 ; Decrease of Birds in Massa-
chusetts, 309 ; Catalogue of all the Birds known to this Day, 310 ; Domes-
ticating the Prairie Chicken, 310; Additional Remains of the Moa, 311;
the Migration of Birds, 311 ; Fossil Birds in America, 311 ; Addition to

TAl^LE OF CONTENTS. ix

North American Ornithology Pyrrliophoena rieflferi, 312 ; the Habits of
Birds, 312 ; New FossU Giant Birds, 313.
ill.) REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.

A Tame Serpent, 313 ; New Order of Pterosauria, 314 ; a Fossil Reptile with
Mammalian Characters in Prince Edward's Island, 315; PtcptUes of Costa
Rica, 315; Snake-eating Snakes, 316; Blood-corpuscles of the Batrachia,
274; Remarkable Habit of Frogs, 316; Reproduction in the Proteus, 317;
Habits of the Mexican Axolotl, 317 ; Spermatozoa of Amphiuma, 318 ; Re-
semblances of Plesiosaurs and Ichthyosaurs to other Vertebrates, 318.
(i.) FISHES.

Rafinesque's Fishes of the Ohio, 318 ; the Pilot Fish, 319 ; New Work on
European Fresh-water Fishes, 319; some Curious Australian Fishes, 319;
Poey's Catalogue of Cuban Fishes, 320 ; Habits of the Salmon, 320 ; the
Rainbow Fish, 321 ; Incubation of Chromis Paterfamilias, 322 ; Cause of
the Black Spots on the Scales of Fish, 323 ; Remarkable Structure of Young
Fishes, 323 ; Curious Habits of Fishes, 324.
(k.) ARTICULATES.

Insects: Preservation of Entomological Specimens, 275 ; Mimicry in But-
terflies explained by Natural Selection, 283 ; Lubbock on the Senses of In-
sects, 288 ; the Sense of Smell in Insects, 290 ; the Weather and Insect
Life, 291 ; Carrying Humble-bees from England to New Zealand, 308 ; a
Wrestling-match between Ants and Wasps, 325 ; the Metamorphoses of
Beetles, 325 ; the Eye of Flies, 326 ; the Life of the Common House-fly, 328 ;
the Seventeen-year Cicada, 326 ; how Cockroaches and Earwigs Fold their
Wings, 327 ; the Phenomena of Digestion in the Cockroach, 328 ; a Noise-
producing Spider, 329 ; Inequality of the Sexes in a Saw-fly, 329 ; Amer-
ican Fossil Insects, 330 ; the Army-worm of the North, 330 ; Adult Insects
with Larval Heads, 330 ; Hatching Silk-worms by Electricity, 331 ; Preco-
cious Transformation of a Silk-Avorm into the Moth, 331 ; a Parasitic Moth,
331 ; Reproduction of the Army-worm, 332 ; Structure and Development of
IMites, 332 ; Eighth Report of the State Entomologist of Missouri, 333.
Crustaceans : INIetamorphosis of the Crustacea, 334 ; Influences of Exter-
nal Agencies in Artemia, 335 ; Strange Isopod Parasites of the Hermit Crab,
335. Annelids : Habits and Anatomy of a Nereid Worm, 336 ; Digestion

in Myriapods, 336 ; the large Human Fluke-worm, 337.
(1.) MOLLUSKS.

Coloring Matter of the Murex Shell, 333 ; Embryolog}^ of Gastropods, 338 ;

Remarkable Mode of Development in Salpa, 338.
(m.) PROTOZOA.

Habits of American Fresh-water Rhizopods, 299 ; INIale Rotifer, 324 ; Ste-

phanoceros on Submerged Plants, 339 ; Gathering of Euplectella, 340 ;

Bathybius, 342; Professor T. Rupert Jones on the Foraminifera, 343;

Professor Huxley on Deep-sea Soundings, 344 ; Cephalosiphon and a New

Infusorian, 345 ; the Fresh-water Rhizopods, 345.

H. BOTANY (clxxv) 347

Floras : Oaks of the United States, 350 ; Plants of New Guinea, 359 ; Flora
of Guadalupe Island, Lower California, 360.

1*

X TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Forests : The Elm of Boston Common, 347 ; an Aged Oak, 349 ; Waxy
Matter on Beech Bark, 349 ; the Size of Famous Oaks, 350 ; Exhibition
by the Agricultural Department of American Woods at the Centennial,
355 ; Living Trees at the Centennial, 356 ; Covering the Slopes of the Alps
with Forests, 365 ; the Proper Time for Cutting Trees, 365 ; the Destruc-
tion of Forests, 366.

Vegetable Physiology, etc. : Uses of Products of the Stone-pine Tree,
365 ; Smoke as a Protection against Frost, 369 ; Influence of the Sun-spot
Period on the Price of Grain, 370 ; what Potash Salts to Buy, 372 ; Effect
of Solutions on a Growing Vine, 358 ; Secretion of Di-osera, 359 ; Devel-
opment of Fungi, 362 ; Glands of Carnivorous Plants, 363 ; Heteromor-
phism in Epigoea, 351.

Particular Kinds of Plants : An Intoxicating Grass, 352 ; Investiga-
tions on American Gooseberries, 355 ; the Heath in America, 358 ; Occur-
rence of the Palm-tree, Scheelia regia, 361 ; the True Jute Plant, 362 ; the
Potato Disease, 363 ; Diseases of Olive and Orange Trees, 364 ; a New
Noxious Weed, 354.

Products : Waxy Matter on Beech Bark, 349 ; Varieties of India Rub-
ber, 357; a New Drying Oil, 357; Uses of Products of the Stone-pine
Tree, 365 ; Caoutchouc from Milkweed, 367.

General : On the Acclimatization of Plants, 348 ; Grouping of Zo-
ospores in Water, 351 ; Self-burying Seeds, 352; Floating Seeds, 353 ; Pres-
ervation of Cut Flowers and Bouquets, 357 ; Living Trees at the Centen-
nial, 356.

L AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY (clxxxi) 365

In General : Prevention of the Freezing of Fruit in the Bud, 369 ; Smoke
as a Protection against Frost, 369 ; the Evaporation from the Skins of Fruit,
369 ; Influence of the Sun-spot Period on the Price of Grain, 370 ; Culture
of Certain Plants among the Aborigines, 370; Furnace for Burning Hay,
Straw, etc., 376.

Manures and Fertilizers : Proposed Utilization of Fish-bones, 372 ;
what Potash Salts to Buy, 372 ; Wood-ashes as a Potash Fertilizer, 372 ;
Values of Potash Fertilizers, 373 ; German Potash Salts, 374 ; New Fertiliz-
ing Material, 383.

Food for Animals : Nutritive Value of Shorts, Middlings, and Shipstuff,
376 ; Salt-marsh and Bog Hay the Feeding Value, 377 ; the Fodder Value
of Apples, 382 ; the Taste of Turnips in Milk and Butter, 383.

Noxious Animals : The New Phylloxera Remedy, 380 ; Ravages of
Phylloxera, 381 ; Latest Conclusions Respecting Phylloxera, 381 ; Car-
tridges for the Destruction of Field Mice by Fumigation, 381 ; Means for
Destroying the Siberian Marmot, 382.

Plants and their Products : Covering the Slopes of the Alps Avith
Forests, 365 ; the Proper Time for Cutting Trees, 365 ; the Destruction of
Forests, 366 ; Culture of Certain Plants among the Aborigines, 370 ; the
Potato Disease, 363; Diseases of Olive and Orange Trees, 364; Uses of
Products of the Stone-pine Tree, 365 ; Cultivation of the Bamboo in France,
366 ; New large Japanese Radish, 367 ; Value of the common Broom Plant
as a Fibre, 367; Autumn Planting of Potatoes, 368 ; Importance of Peat

TABLE OF CONTENTS. xi

Beds, 3G8 ; the Composition of American Wheat Products, 375 ; Artificial
Drying of Hay and Grain, 378; Preservation of Hops, 383. Diseases:
The Potato Diseases, 363 ; Diseases of Olive and Orange Trees, 364.

J. PISCICULTURE AND THE FISHERIES 385

(a.) THE FISHERIES.

Commissions: Report of the Fish Commissioners of Canada for 1875, 391;
Report of the Fish Commissioners of Maine, 329 ; Report of the Fish Com-
missioners of New Hampshire, 393 ; Tenth Report of the Massachusetts
Fish Commissioners, 393 ; Tenth Report of the Fish Commissioners of Con-
necticut, 394 ; Eighth Report of the Fish Commissioners of New York, 395 ;
Fifth Annual Report of the Fish Commissioners of Ncav Jersey, 397 ; Sixth
Annual Report of the Fish Commissioners of New Jersey, 397 ; Action of
the Kentucky Fish Commissioners, 398 ; Convention of Western State Fish
Commissioners, 399 ; First Report of the Iowa Fish Commissioners, 399 ;
Second Report of the Fish Commissioners of Wisconsin, 400 ; Second Re-
port of the Fish Commissioners of Minnesota, 400 ; Arkansas Fish Commis-
sioners, 401 ; Biennial Report of the California Fish Commission, 401.
General Statistics and Reports: Report on the Maritime Fisheries of
France, 1874, 385 ; Report of Bureau of Statistics, 386 ; Gloucester Fisheries
for 1875, 386. Special Fisheries : Connection of Meteorology and Her-
ring-fisheries, 387 ; Potomac River Fisheries, 388 ; Seal-fisheries of 1876 on
the Greenland Coast, 389; Close Time for Seals in the Northern Sea, 389;
Report on Alaska Seal Islands, 389 ; Menhaden-fishery in 1875, 390 ; New
Use for the Scrap of the Moss-bunker, 390 ; Utilizing the Offal of Codfish
on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 391 ; Capturing Eels in Cochin China, 403.
(b.) FISH-CULTURE.

General Considerations : Rapidity of Growth in Certain Fishes, 405 ; One
Cause of Death of Fishes, 405 ; Utilization of Warmed Waters in Fisli-cult-
ure, 406. Particular Species: Cultivation of Carp in California, 403;
Hatching Whitefish in the Detroit River, 403; Shad in the Mississippi,
406 ; Renewed Attempt to Send Salmon Eggs to New Zealand, 407 ; Salm-
on in the Antipodes, 408 ; Salmon Eggs in South Africa, 408 ; Capture of
Salmon in the Connecticut River, 409 ; Artificial Culture of Pearl-Oysters,
409 ; Reproduction of the Oyster, 409 ; Fattening of Oysters, 410.

K. DOMESTIC AND HOUSEHOLD ECONOMY 411

(a.) THE DWELLING.

The Building : The Construction of Winding Staircases, 411 ; Self-closing
Hinge for Storm-doors, Double Doors, etc., 411 ; Repairing Leaky Cellar
Walls, 428. The Furniture : Mysterious Clocks, 412; Prevention of the
Cracking off of Glue, 412 ; Imitation of Straw and Wicker-work, 430.

(b.) LIGHTING, HEATING, AND VENTILATION.

Lighting": Electrical Illumination of Factories, 413 ; a New Incandescent
Light, 414; Automatic Hydraulic Blower for Gas-machines, 414; Com-
bined Street-lamp and Fire-hydrant, 414 ; New Safety-lantern, 414 ; the
Chandor Light, 415; Lamp for Burning Nitric Oxide Gas, 415; Glycerine
for Illumination and Heating, 416 ; Illuminating-gas from Bones, 417 ; Gas
from Cork-waste. 417; Burning-gas from Wood and Petroleum, 417; Sul-

xii TABLE OF CONTENTS.

phur in Coal-gas, 418 ; Illuminating-gas from Night-soil and Dead Ani-
mals, 418 ; Walking-cane containing a Candle, 419. Heating : A Reflect-
ing-plate for Open Grate Fires, 419 ; Improvement in Fire-places, 420 ;
Ventilation : Method of Cooling the Air, 420.

(C.) CLOTHING AND ADORNMENT.

Cloth of Feathers for Ladies' Cloaks, etc., 422 ; Water-proofing Umbrellas,
etc., 430.

(d.) THE LAUNDRY.

Cheap Soap for Ordinary Articles and Woolen Factories, 421 ; Tyrian-pur-
ple Ink for Marking Linen, 429.

(e.) THE TABLE.

Apparatus and Utensils : Cleaning Silver-ware, etc., with Potato-water,
424. Preparation of Food for the Table : Cooking Meat by Cold, 422 ;
Cooking Leguminous Vegetables, 426. Preservation: Antiseptic Action
of SalicyUc Acid, 423 ; Preservative Action of Salicylic Acid, 425 ; Glycer-
ine-gelatin for Protecting Preserved Fruit, 427 ; Ice-cellars on Brainard's
Plan, 427. Substances Used as Food : Production of Madeira Wine, 423 ;
Detection of Oleomargarine in Butter, 424 ; Solidified Milk, 425 ; Action of
Cold on Milk, 425 ; Substitute for Extract of Meat and Preserved Meat, 427.

(f.) MISCELLANEOUS.

New Life-saving Device, 412 ; Substitute for Persian Insect-powder, 424 ;
Explosions in Flour-mills, 428 ; Increasing the Adhesiveness of Court-plas-
ter, 430.

L. MECHANICS AND ENGINEERING (ccxiv) 431

(a.) MATERIALS.

Mortars, Cements, and Slags : New Hydraulic Cement, 470 ; Dubois'
Peinture Hydraulique, 471 ; Metal : Iron and Steel for Boilers, Bridges,
etc., 432; Cast Steel for Locomotive Boilers, 432; Bessemer Process with
Hot Blast, 432 ; Extended Service of a Furnace, 433 ; Revolving Furnace
Bars, 433. Wood: Preservation of Wood, 431; Carbolic Acid and the
Preservation of Wood, 431 ; New Process for the Preservation of Wood,
431; New Process for Injecting Timber, 432.

(b.) CONSTRUCTION.

Vessels: Vertical Movement of Vessels under High Speed, 472. Tele-
graphs: Underground Telegraph Lines, 464. Buildings: Effects of Tem-
perature on the St. Louis Bridge, 466 ; the Construction of Revolving Draw-
bridges, 467 ; the Proper Construction of Sewers, 467 ; a New Dry-dock,
468 ; the Effects of Levees, 469. Mines : American Mining Methods, 434.
Light -houses and Signals: Steam Fog- whistles, 459; the Electric
Light-house at South Foreland, 460 ; the Use of Gas for Light-houses, 461 ;
the Electric Light for Signaling, 461 ; Fog-signaling by Explosives, 462 ;
Carrier-pigeons, 463.

(C.) MOTORS.

Coal and Fuel in General : Peat as Locomotive Fuel, 447. Steam and
Engines : Statistics of Steam, 435 ; Casing for Steam-pipes, 435 ; Anti-
fouling Composition, 435 ; Prevention of Boiler Incrustations, 436 ; Appa-
ratine, a New Anti-incrustator, 436 ; Incrustation of Boilers, 437 ; Pressure

TABLE OF CONTENTS. xiii

Gauge to Register 54,000 Pounds, 437 ; an Automatic Relief-valve for Steam
Fire-engines, 438 ; Stationary Hydraulic Engine for Railways, 439. Rail-
roads : Railway Signals and Blocks, 440 ; a New Plan of Elevated Railroad,
442 ; a New Rail for Street Railways, 443 ; Iron Sleepers, 444 ; Single-rail
Steam Towage on Canals, 445. Balloons: Scientific Ballooning, 449; Re-
cent Progress of Aeronautics, 450 ; Aeronautics in the Arctic Regions, 452 ;
the Parakite, 453. Explosives and Projectiles : Fluid-compressed Steel
and Guns, 453 ; Range-finder for Artillery Practice, 454 ; Sharp Artillery
Practice, 455 ; Rotation of Rifled Projectiles, 456 ; Silicate Cotton, 457 ;
Lignose, a New Explosive, 457 ; Influence of Heat on the Explosiveness of
Nitro-glycerine, 458 : Experiments with Prismatic Gunpowder, 458 ; Re-
searches on Explosives, 459 ; Influence of Wind on Projectiles, 472.
(d.) MISCELLANEOUS.

Electro-capillary Motor, 439 ; a New Motor for Small Machines, 442 ; New
Oil-car, 442 ; Cast-steel Wire Ropes, 445 ; Submerged Chain for Towing
Boats, 446 ; Wire Ropes of Phosphor-bronze, 446 ; the Pneumatic Tube in
Theory and Practice, 447 ; Pneumatic Tubes in Paris, 448 ; Principles of
the Construction of Wheels, 448 ; Extinguishment of Conflagrations, 464;
Sulphur as a Fire Extinguisher, 465 ; the Aquometer, 471 ; the Brayton
Ready Motor, 473.

M. TECHNOLOGY 475

(a.) THE LIBERAL ARTS.

Printing and Stamping : A Printer's Ink readily Removable from Waste
Paper, 486. Engraving and Lithographing : Etching Photographs ou
Zinc, in Relief, for Ordinary Printing, 479 ; New Photolithographic or Au-
beltype Process, 480 ; the Gillotype, 481 ; French Method in Engraving on
Wood, 483. Writing : Fire-proof Paper and Ink for Valuable Documents,
etc., 484 ; Imitation of Jacobsen's Copying-ink Pencils, 484 ; Preparation
of Copying-ink Pencils, 485 ; ]Marking-ink Unaffected by Chlorine, 485 ;
Inerasible Black Ink, 485 ; Cohausen's Perigraph, 485. Drawing and
Copying : For Taking Tracings, 486 ; Copying Apparatus of Bauer & Co.,
487. Photographing : Recent Progress in Photography, 475 ; New Meth-
od of Micro-photography for Maps in War-time, 482 ; Photographic Copy-
ing-paper for Drawings, etc., 482; Retouching Varnish for Negatives, 483 ;
Photographic Power of Artificial Light, 483. Modeling and Casting : Pa-
pier-mache Ornaments, etc., 487 ; Preservation of Plaster-casts, 487 ; Im-
provements in Plaster of Paris, 488.

(b.) THE MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL ARTS,

Spinning, "Weaving, and Felting : Process for Covering Cotton with Silk,
502 ; New Method of Fulling Woolen Goods, 503. Sizing and Dressing :
Apparatine, a Substitute for Gum, Starch, etc., 498 ; Bleached Isinglass,
500. Water-proofing: Water-proof Dressing for Leather, 488; Water-
proofing Fabrics Avith Bichromated Gelatin, 489. Water-proof Awnings,
511. Cleaning and Bleaching : Discharging Aniline Black from Fabrics,
489 ; Utilization of the Suds from the Washing of Wool, 498 ; Bleaching
Sponges, 501. Dyeing and Printing : Eff(ect of Freezing upon the Color
of Fabrics, 488 ; Dyeing Parchment Paper with Aniline Colors, 489 ; Ar-
tificial Ultramarine Industrv, 489 ; Prohibition of Artificial Alizarine in

xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Russia, 490; Golden Olive on Cloth, 490 ; Dyeing Silk, 490 ; Beautiful Black
for Straw Hats, etc., 491 ; Dyeing Black with Cerium Salts, 491 ; New
Black for Wool, 491; Xylindein, a New Dye-stuff, 492; Eosin, a New
Fluorescent Dye-stuff, 492 ; a New Aniline Bed, 492 ; Georgine, a New
Yellow Dye, 493 ; Baryta-green, 493 ; Dyeing Cotton Pure Blue, 493 ; For-
mation of Furpurine for Alizarine, 494; Dove-color on Raw Wool, 494.
Painting, Staining, and Varnishing : Varnish for Blackboards, 495 ;
Rendering Oak Wood a Beautiful Orange-yellow, 495 ; Brown Stain for
Oak, 495 ; Deep Walnut Stain for Light AYoods, 495 ; Gold Varnish for
Metals, 496; Gilding Letters and Designs on Glass, 496; Oil-paint for
Floors, 497 ; Adulteration of Beeswax with Paraffin, 500 Oils, Wax, Gums,
and Resins : Purification of Fixed Vegetable Oils, 497 ; Palmieri's Dra-
gometer, 497 ; Clarifying an Alcoholic Solution of Shellac, 499 ; Oleic Acid
as a Solvent and Test for Gum Copal, 500 ; the Industrial Employment of
the Light Products of Petroleum, 522. Plating or Coating with Metals
Tinning Iron Tacks, 514; Brilliant Zinc Coating on Brass and Copper, 514
Enameling on Brass and German Silver, 515; Bronzing Iron Castings, 515
Nickel-plating Process, 515 ; Production of a Brownish Patina on Zinc, 516
Coating Mirrors with an Alloy of Gold and Platinum, 516 ; Nickel-plating
Solution, 516. Alloys : Copper Alloy that will Adhere to Glass, 512. Pol-
ishing : Steel Brushes for Cleaning Iron Castings, 498. Cementing : A
New Cement, 510; Attaching Leather to Metal, 510; Marine Glue, 510;
Durable Glue, 511; Liquid Glue, 511; Gelatin and Bichromate of Potash
Cement for Glass, 512. Sundry Chemical Processes : Preparation of Blood
as a Powder, 520 ; Carre's Carafe Ice-machine, 522. Raw or Simple Ma-
terials used in the Arts : Schweitzer's Solvent for Cellulose, 500 ; Utili-
zation of Chrome-alum, 501 ; Modifications of Chrome-alum, 502 ; Cuir-
liege, a New Fabric, 505 ; Russia Leather, 508 ; a New Glass, 512 ; Harden-
ed Glass, Vulcan Glass, and Metallic Glass, 513 ; Hardening Glass, 513 ;
Artificial Gems of Hardened Glass, 514 ; Water-glass for Washing Cotton
used in Cleaning Machinery, 514. Utilizing Waste Products : The Hair
of Squirrels' Tails for Brushes, 503 ; Utilization of Leather-waste, 606.
Adulterations: Adulteration of Beeswax with Paraffin, 500. Miscella-
neous : Uses of Gelatinous Hydrated Phosphate of Lime, 499; Removing
Vegetable Substances from AVool, 502 ; Numbering Silk Thread and Fab-
rics, 504 ; a New Industry, 507 ; Cement for Ovens, 509 ; Reflector for
Moulders, 517 ; Self-feeding Nail-machine, 517 ; Flexible Mandril for Bend-
ing Metal Pipes, 517 ; Tempered Steel Brushes, 518 ; Rapidity of Filtra-
tion, 518; New Application of Infusorial Earth, 519; Condensing Beer for
Preservation, 519 ; New Form of Paper Filter, 519 ; another Direct Soda
Process, 520; Air-tight Joints, 520; to Prevent Shafting Accidents, 521.
Tanning and Dressing Skin : New Substitute for Bark in Tanning, 507 ;
Olive-oil and Glycerine as a Partial Substitute for Yolk of Egg in Tanning,
508 ; Rapid Tanning Process, 508.

N. MATERIA MEDICA, THERAPEUTICS, AND HYGIENE 525

(a.) MATERIA MEDICA.

Jolly on Phosphate of Lime, 525 ; Hypodermic Injection of Lactate of
Soda, 525 ; Therapeutical A'alue of Silphium, 525 ; New Substances of the

TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV

Materia Medica, 526 ; on Jaborandi, 527 ; Therapeutic Qualities of Cod-
liver Oil and Quinine, 529 ; Cheap Quinine, 529 ; Chloral and Picrotoxine,
529 ; Action of Bromide of Lithium, 530 ; Extraordinary Action of Nitrite
of Amyl,53L
(b.) DISEASES AND THEIR CURE.

Effects of Cholera on the Mucous Membrane, 532 ; the Blood in Typhoid
Fever, 532 ; Asiatic Cholera, 532 ; Peculiar Disease among Dogs in China,
533; Treatment of Asthma, 534; French Investigation of Hay-fever, 534;
Cochin-China Diarrhcea, 535 ; Indian Corn and Endemic Pellagra, 535; Im-
proved Dental Process, 536; Poisonous Properties of Glycerine, 537; Poi-
sonous Properties of Fuchsin, 537.

(C.) THE PUBLIC HEALTH.

Influence of Altitude upon the Health, 531; Electrical Alarm against Car-
bonic Oxide, 540 ; Cincinnati Hams, 538 ; Exclusion of Dust from the
Lungs, 538. Miscellaneous: Eeport of Massachusetts State Board of
Health, 537.

O. NECROLOGY 541

P. BIBLIOGRAPHY 547

Q. INDEX TO THE REFERENCES 58G

ALPHABETICAL INDEX 591

GENERAL SUMMARY

OF

SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTEIAL PROGKESS
DURING THE YEAR 1876.

ASTRONOMY.

By EDWARD S. HOLDEN,

Pbofessor of Mathematics, United States Navy.

INTRODUCTION.

In presenting a review of the progress of Astronomy during tlie
past year, it is to be remembered tliat the principal results reached
are such as can be readily classified under appropriate heads, and
there are but few in this year, as in every year, which call for espe-
cial and peculiar mention. The successful application of photogra-
phy to the registration of star spectra by Huggins and Draper, how-
ever, constitutes a most important step in the j^rogress of stellar
physics. Many publications of standard value have been made,
such as the "Observations of the Zodiacal Light," by Heis; the
" General Catalogue of Double Stars," by Burnham ; the zones of
nebulae observed by Vogel at Leipzig ; Langley's and Sj)oerer's so-
lar investigations, and many others. A most striking advance is
the growing tendency of astronomers to an economical division of
labor, as, for example, in the prosecution of the zones of the Ger-
man Astronomical Society ; in the computation of comet orbits under
the auspices of the same society, etc. A praiseworthy example of
co-operation is shown by the Italian observatories, which have di-
vided the field of work according to plans originally devised by
Tacchini. By a loyal and zealous co-operation, the whole energy
of the astronomers of Italy is judiciously applied to the subjects of
work in hand, so that each observatory has its especial field, and
contributes its full share to the general progress.

The true progress of observational astronomy is to be forwarded
by the faithful carrying out of well-devised plans. The number of

xviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

such concerted and sj'Stematically carried-ont schemes of observa-
tion is now very great, and extends to all branches of the subject,
from the spectroscopic observations of solar phenomena to the me-
ridian observations of asteroids at Greenwich and Paris, and similar
work elsewhere. While the present instruments are utilized, new
observatories are being founded ; and, in particular, many large tel-
escopes are building or newly completed. The history of astronomy
has been well exemplified in the interesting Loan Collection at South
Kensington ; and the republication of the works of Bessel and oth-
ers is of more than passing imj^ortance, and it is to be hoped that
these may lead to a collection of the works of the elder Herschel,
which is so much needed. Discoveries of new minor planets have
ceased to be the novelty they were in 1801, owing to the assiduity
of astronomers. The intra-Mercurial planet has so far not been
detected, although patiently sought for. With this brief jireface,
we may proceed to a systematic though condensed view of the
work of the present year,

NEW OBSERVATORIES FOUNDED, ETC,

The new Astrophysilcalisclieii Institut of Potsdam, under the charge
of Sporer, is still in process of building, as well as the Physical Ob-
servatory at Paris, under Janssen, IVIouchez has established a school
of Practical Astronomy and an observatory at Montsouris. The
new National Observatory of Austro-Hungary at Vienna, an insti-
tution of the first class, is to be completed in 1877. The Savilian
Observatory for Celestial Physics at Oxford has also commenced its
operations. An observatory for spectroscopic observations of the
sun has been founded at Calcutta, The Observatory of Lisbon is to
undertake photographic researches.

Little has been done toward the carrying out of the provisions of
Mr. Lick's trust for the erection of an astronomical observatory in
California. It is to be hoped that this valuable gift to Astronomy
will soon begin to yield results. The observatory at Glasgow, Mis-
souri, is completed and partially equipped, and has begun work by
a series of observations on Saturn's satellites. One of the most im-
portant steps of the year has been in the division of labor adopted
among the Italian observatories.

The Royal Observatory at Greenwich has seriously entered into a
new field, that of celestial physics, SjDectroscopic and jDh olographic
work is constantly done. The observatory at Melbourne has received
considerable accessions to its instrumental outfit, and is making im-
portant contributions to the astronomy of the southern hemisphere
in several fields.

The National Observatory at Paris has mounted its four-foot re-
flector during the year. The mounting is said to be satisfactory, but
the mirror is not yet in perfect condition, and the glass for a new

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. xix

one has been ordered. The Foucault reflector of thirty-one inches
aperture has been mounted at Toulouse since February, and Tisse-
rand has begun a study of the Orion nebula and of the fainter satel-
lite systems. The instruments for the Strasburg Observatory are
well-nigh completed, and we may look for important work on com-
ets and nebulae from its accomplished director. Its outfit will be
most complete, no pains having been spared in the design and
in the execution of the various instruments. Dr. Valentiner, of
Leyden, is transferred to Mannheim vice Schonfeld, who succeeds
Argelander at Bonn. Kriiger, of Helsingfors, has succeeded Hansen
at Gotha.

Stone, of Washington, has been appointed to be Director of the
Cincinnati Observatory, and the Dudley Observatory of Albany is
now opened under the charge of Mr. Lewis Boss. Professor Picker-
ing, formerly of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, has been
appointed to be Director of the Observatory of Harvard College.
The Observatory of Cordova has completed its zone observations,
and is proceeding with the publication of its uranometry.

THE SUN.

Powalky has published an important paper on the Dorpat obser-
vations of the sun, 1823-1839.

The solar protuberances are daily mapped by Tacchini, of Paler-
mo, and Secchi at Rome ; at Greenwich, by Christie and Maunder ;
and by various other observers.

Daily photographs are taken at Greenwich, at Paris (by Cornu at
the observatory, and. by Janssen), Moscow, Toulouse, Kasan, etc. ;
also by Lockyer, at South Kensington, with a Huyghens lens of 123
feet focus. The spots are observed daily at Madrid, Oxford, Berlin,
Zurich, etc. Melbourne also takes daily photographs.

The Royal Astronomical Society has recently acquired an eleven-
year series of sun-photographs made by Professor Selwyn.

Secchi has recently brought out a second and greatly enlarged
edition of his treatise on the sun. The journal of the Spectroscopic
Society of Italy continues its resumes of spectroscopic and other
work ; and its pages may be consulted for special memoirs on spec-
troscopy. Lockyer, Abney, Roscoe, Stewart, and Vogel are still oc-
cupied with their normal map of the solar spectrum ; and Draper is
pursuing his investigation of metallic spectra. The third volume of
the Bothkamp observations, by Dr. O. Lohse, is devoted almost en-
tirely to the discussion of his own solar observations.

Young has recently taken up an important research on the rota-
tion of the solar surfoce as derived from spectroscopic observations.
His observations give for the velocity of the sun's rotation 1.42
miles per second, while direct observation gives 1.25 miles. Vo-
gel's earlier results gave from 1.62 to 1.94 miles. The difference

XX GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

between Young's result and that given by direct observation is sup-
posed by him to have a possible physical interpretation, viz., that
the solar atmosphere really sweeps forward over the underlying
surface. The results obtained by Christie at Greenwich are not
yet printed, although they have been presented to the Royal As-
tronomical Society.

The simple arrangement proposed by Hastings some years ago
for a comparison of the two limbs of the sun has not, we believe,
been applied to this research, for which it seems to be peculiarly
fitted.

Langley has continued his observations of solar phenomena, par-
ticularly with reference to the heat of various portions of the sun, of
sun-spots, etc., and of the efiect of sun-spots on terrestrial tempera-
ture. In a recent experiment, the light of the sun was compared
with that of the molten iron of a Bessemer converter, and the con-
clusion reached that the temperature of the sun is really far above
any temperature observable on the earth, being probably expressed
by millions of degrees.

SOLAR ECLIPSES.

Vol. XLII. of the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society con-
tains Tennant's report on the total eclipse of 1871, December 11,
and Stone's on that of 1874, April 16. Stone's is particularly no-
ticeable, as he has clearly proved the outer corona to be a solar ap-
pendage. In this connection Young's discovery of the duplicity of
1474 K is noteworthy, as well as the admirable device by which the
discovery was made.

Vol. XLI. of the Memoirs of tlie Royal Astronomical Society contains
a discussion, by Ranyard, of the phenomena of recent solar eclipses,
which is intended to be exhaustive.

A very interesting daguerreotype of the solar eclipse of 1851, taken
at Konigsberg, is shown at the Loan Collection at South Kensing-
ton. It is, we believe, the first photographic image of the corona,
and has been little known until its exhibition at London.

The transit of Venus reductions are not yet completed on the part
of any country. Attempts to observe the velocity of light experi-
mentally (and hence the distance of the sun) are to be made by
Newcomb, of Washington, in concert with Barker, of Philadelphia,
and by Forbes, of Edinburgh.

Lindsay and Gill will shortly publish their value of the solar par-
allax from observations of Juno. The method has been perfectly
successful.

THE MOON.
In the Lunar Theory, Airy continues his researches at Green-
wich, as does likewise Newcomb at Washington. Stockwell is oc-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. xxi

cupiecl with the development of his new views on the theory. Schjel-
lerup has also given the subject some attention, his only published
work being, however, a reply to StockwelFs pamphlet. A new lunar
inequality has been detected by Newcomb.

Lohrmann's map of the moon is now to be completely pub-
lished under the editorship of Schmidt, who is also publishing
his own great chart. Tempel is likewise engaged on a map of
the moon.

Neison has embodied his work on the moon's atmosphere, phys-
ical features, etc., into an octavo book lately published.

Work on the British Association chart of the moon (Birt's) is, we
believe, temporarily suspended for want of funds.

It is understood that the attraction-meter devised by Dr. C. W.
Siemens, and exhibited by him at South Kensington, is soon to be
applied by Sir William Thompson to determine the mass of the
moon.

THE PLANETS AND SATELLITES.

Drawings of Mars continue to be made by Terby and others.
Trouvelot, of Cambridge, has made one hundred and twenty-five
drawings of Jupiter during the present opijosition a very impor-
tant work, as the planet was too low for observation in Europe.
Trouvelot confirms the statement of Lohse that changes of unusual
magnitude are this year occurring on Jupiter. He also has pub-
lished a drawing of Saturp, with a discussion of its physical features,
in which some new views of the shape of the rings are advocated.
Weber's supposed observation of Vulcan, on April 4th, 1876, has led,
by request of Le Verrier, to a general examination of the sun, on
October 2d and 3d, and 9th and 10th, with the object of detecting
this planet in transit. This search was unsuccessful.

Janssen has devised an apparatus by means of which a photograph
of the sun may be automatically taken every quarter of an hour, and
this he proposes to erect at Paris, for the purpose of detecting inte-
rior planets in transit. The whole question of the existence of a
jDlanet interior to Mercuiy (Vulcan) has been carefully examined in
a series of memoirs by Le Verrier, abstracts of which are given in
the following pages. His general conclusion is that in 1885 a
transit of Vulcan will take place, and to that time he defers the defi-
nite answer to the question of Vulcan's existence.

It has been pointed out, however, that in 1878 a very favorable
total solar eclipse occurs in America, and with proper care such a
body as Vulcan is supposed to be can hardly escape detection if es-
pecial attention is directed to it.

XXll

GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

Following is a list of the minor planets discovered during tlie
year :

MINCE, PLAJSIETS.

Num-
ber.

Name.

Date of
Discovery,

Approximate
Magnitude.

Discoverer.

Observatory.

187G.

158

Koronia,

Jau. 4,

11.12

Knorre,

Berlin.

159

Emelia,

Jan. 26,

12.5

Paul Henry,

Paris.

160

Una,

Feb. 25,

11

C. H. F. Peters,

Clinton.

161

Alhor,

April 19,

11

Watson,

Ann Arbor.

162

?

April 22,

12

Prosper Henry,

Paris.

163

Erigone,

April 28,

12

Perrotin,

Toulouse.

164

Eva

July 12,

12.5

Paul Henry,

Paris.

165

Lorele)',

Aug. 9,

10.7

C. H. F. Peters,

Clinton.

166

RhodoiDC,

Aug. 10,

11.2

C. H. F. Peters,

Clinton.

167

Urda,

Aug. 28,

12

C. H. F. Peters,

Clinton.

168

Sybilla,

Sept. 28,

11

Watson,

Ann Arbor.

169

Zelia

Sept. 28,

11

Prosper Henry,

Paris.

Palisa, of Pola, has likewise rediscovered Maia (66), which has
been lost for some time.

Le Verrier has published, or shortly will publish, tables of Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Other occui3ations have hindered
Mr, George W. Hill in the preparation of his tables of Saturn,

The theory of the satellites of Jupiter has been investigated by
Souillart, who is preparing tables of their motion, Todd, of Wash-
ington, has extended the tables of Jupiter's satellites to 1900, and
the American ephemeris will publish the tables. Newcomb has
published tables of the motion of the satellites of Uranus and Nep-
tune. A great number of observations of the satellites of Saturn
has been made by Hall at W'ashington, and at Greenwich, and Glas-
gow, Missouri, observations have been made, aided by the valuable
ejjhemeris of Marth. The Washington observers have also made a
number of observations of the satellites of Uranus and Neptune,
Hall has discovered a white spot on Saturn which has been fol-
lowed through over sixty revolutions, and the observations of which
give a rotation time of 10^ l^'" 23.8^2.3^ The Observatory of Ley-
den has become possessed of Schroeter's unpublished work on Mars.

COMETS.

There has been no discovery of a comet during the year.

Bredichin, of Moscow, has published an important memoir on the
phenomena of the tail of Comet III., 1862. Kowalczyk, of Warsaw,
has published a definitive orbit of Comet II., 1840. It is an ellipse
of about 3700 years' period. Weiss, of Vienna, in investigating the
orbit of the comet of Coggia (November, 1873), concludes it to have
a period of 6.20 years, and to be identical with that of Pons (1818).
Tuttle's periodic comet will reappear in 1884, and the preparation

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. xxiii

of an ephemeris, and a discussion of its elements, is under the charge
of Professor O. Stone, of the Cincinnati Observatory.

MOTIONS OF STARS TOWARD OR FROM THE EARTH.
The theoretical basis ui)on which rest the recent determinations
of the motions of stars in the line of sight, by means of the spectro-
scope, has been called in question by Yan der Willigen, in a mathe-
matical memoir published some years ago. During the past year
Secchi has undertaken to repeat certain measures of Huggins upon
several of the brighter stars, and he has found that in his own ob-
servations constant errors arose, which masked the true deviations
of the stellar lines from their corresponding lines in the comparison
spectra. On examining the results obtained by himself, Huggins,
Christie, and Vogel, he came to the conclusion that these showed
a strong probability that the determinations were affected with
constant errors. This was particularly so in the case of Green-
wich, nearly all of the results obtained at this observatory show-
ing a motion of the star toward the earth. Since the publica-
tion of this paper, Christie, of Greenwich, has published a new
set of measures, which, in the main, corroborate Muggins's previ-
ous determinations ; and Huggins has replied to some strictures
by Secchi in a note which describes the delicacy of the research,
and states that the difticulties Secchi encountered must be over-
come before any trustworthy results are possible, and that Hug-
gins himself had successfully avoided these drawbacks. Since
the above paragraph was in type, Huggins has communicated to
the Royal Society, and Draper to SiUiinan's Journal., accounts of
the successful application of photography to the registration of
stellar spectra.

SOLAR MOTION IN SPACE.

Saflbrd has recently taken up anew the investigation of this ques-
tion, using for the purpose Argelander's 250 stars.

In studying these stars, Professor Safford grouped them by tens,
assuming those to be equally distant whose proper motions in arc
were nearly equal, and therefore leaving entirely out of considera-
tion the brightness of the stars. His first result, as regards the di-
rection of the movement of the solar system, was not very different
from those of his predecessors ; but there appeared indications that,
for each of his groups of stars, the average proper motion Avas in-
versely proportional to the average distance ; in other words, that
our assumption of stellar distances ought to depend upon proper
motions. He concludes that the stars having similar motions espe-
cially need study at this time, and that eventually we may hope to
use the solar motion as a sort of base to advance our knowledge of
stellar distances.

xxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

NEBULA.

Winnecke, of Strasburg, has begun work again in this field with
powerful instruments. Bruhns has begun the publication of charts
of nebulae observed in zones at Leipzig. Yogel has published the
results of a determination of the positions of all the nebulae in the
Leipzig zone of the new Durchmusterung. It takes its place at once
with the works of Auwers, Schonfeld, and Schultz, and Vogel's
former work of 1867, as an acknowledged classic. Vogel has also
made some drawings of hitherto unj^ublished nebulae. Forty or
fifty southern nebulas, formerly figured by Herschel,have been drawn
and studied by Ellery, of Melbourne, and his assistants, and the re-
sults will shortly be published. Gould, of Cordoba, has made many
photographs of southern clusters and double stars. A monograph
of the ring nebula of Lyra has been published by Holden, of Wash-
ington, as well as a detailed discussion of all jDublished drawings
and observations of the nebula G. C. 4403, in which it is endeavored
to show a veritable proper motion to this body. Tisserand, of Tou-
louse, and Tempel, of Florence, as w^ell as Holden at Washington
and Trouvelot at Cambridge, have published preliminary results of
their work on the Orion nebula. Bredichin, of Moscow, has inves-
tigated the spectra of many planetary nebulae, and finds them in
general to be of one type, and usually to be sensibly the same.
Dreyer, of Parsonstowu, is preparing a supplement to Herschel's
general catalogue.

DOUBLE STARS.

Double stars have been faithfully observed during the past year,
the most noteworthy publications of private observers being those
of Dembowski, Gledhill and Crossley, Wilson and Seabroke, and
Barclay.

Otto Struve at Pulkova, Dembowski at Gallarate, Dungr at
Lund, Newcomb and Hall at Washington, Wilson and Seabroke,
of Rugby, Crossley and Gledhill, of Halifax, and others, have jDub-
lished important measures of difficult stars. Burnham, of Chicago,
and Howe, of Cincinnati, have published lists of new double stars.
A method for obtaining the relative personal equation of various
double -star observers by simultaneous observations of a selected
list of doubles is proposed by Struve, and will be followed by sev-
eral observers.

The double - star observations and discoveries of O. M. Mitchel
have been prepared for the press by the present Director of the Cin-
cinnati Observatory, Professor Ormond Stone, and will shortly be
issued.

The supposed discovery of a companion of Procyon in 1873, and
the subsequent observations of 1874 by Otto Struve, are now sup-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. xxv

posed by him to have been deceptions. The companion demanded
by Auwers' theory lias thus far not been detected.

BINARY STARS.

Doberck, of Markree, has taken up the subject of the computa-
tion of binary star orbits with much zeal, and to him we owe many
publications on this subject. Tisserand, Schiaparelli, and others
have contributed to this subject important papers,

A work by Crossley, Wilson, Gledhiil, and Doberck, jointly, is in
course of preparation on the general subject of double and binary
stars, their observation, history, orbits, etc. Lord Lindsay has pre-
pared for publication an index to W. Struve's double -star ob-
servations. Of particular binaries, one of the most noteworthy is
Beta Leporis^ discovered by Burnham (distance about three seconds
of arc), which has a motion of about 2 a month in position angle.
This indicates this star as probably one of the nearer stars, and
makes an investigation of its parallax desirable by some southern
observatory.

ZODIACAL LIGHT, METEORITES, VARIABLE STARS, ETC.

The observations of J. C. Houzeau, of the Observatory of Brussels,
and his conclusions therefrom, constitute a contribution of high
importance to the knowledge of the zodiacal light. Heis has
published the results of his observations of the zodiacal light from
1847 to 1875 ; and Serpieri is discussing carefully the observations
of Chaplain Jones, U. S. N. Mr. Henry C. Lewis, of Germantown, has
made an extended series of zodiacal light observations. Wright,
of New Haven, has investigated the spectrum of the zodiacal light,
and also the chemical constitution of meteorites. This last research
tends to establish more fully the relation between comets and me-
teor-swarms.

The variable stars continue to be observed by Schonfeld, Schmidt,
and others; and Schmidt has published during the year many im-
portant memoirs on this subject. Schonfeld's second catalogue
(Mannheim, 1876), with its copious notes, is of caj^ital importance
in this subject. Schmidt has detected a new (temporary) star in Cyg-
nus, which, for a few days, was of the third magnitude.

CATALOGUES OF STARS.

Among others we note the Coast Survey List of Latitude Stars,
2164 in number. Moesta, of Chili, publishes a second volume of
Santiago observations, with an important comparison of his work
with that of the earlier observers. Stone's catalogue of southern
stars has been printed during the year. The Harvard College cat-
alogue of 373 fundamental stars is noticed elsewhere. Gould, of Cor-
doba, has a catalogue of 12,000 southern stars. The third Raddiffe

2

xxvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

catalogue of 4000 stars is preparing. The Observatory of Brussels
is preparing a catalogue of 12,000 stars. Safford has prepared a new
catalogue of Standard Declinations for the Engineer Department.

Burnham's catalogue of (about) 10,000 double stars has long been
ready for the press ; but is temporarily delayed, and will be printed
in 1877.

Boss, of Albany, is preparing for the U. S. Northern Boundary Com-
mission a catalogue of 490 stars, which will give standard positions.
All trustworthy observations of each star (including Bradley's) have
been used and rigorously discussed.

Stone, of Cincinnati, publishes a catalogue of 50 new double stars.

Schonfeld's second catalogue of 143 variable stars has appeared
during the year.

MISCELLANEOUS.

"We note the establishment during the year of Konigsberger's Ee-
2oertorium der Eeinen unci Angewandten 3fatJiematik, under the editor-
ship of Dr. Leo Konigsberger and Dr. Gustav Zeuner, of Dresden.
This periodical will have the novel feature of abstracts of works on
Astronomy, Geodesy, Mathematical Physics, etc., by the authors of
the works themselves. The Analyst of Professor Hendricks, at present
our only mathematical journal, continues to maintain its position.

It is understood that a mathematical journal is j^roposed to be
published by the Johns-Hopkins University, under the experienced
editorship of Professor J. J. Sylvester.

The publication of a selection of the works of Bessel, by Dr. Engel-
mann, of Leipzig, deserves a special mention. A similar compilation
for the works of the elder Herschel is much to be desired.

The opening of the Loan Collection of Scientific Apparatus at Lon-
don has been an event of great importance during the year. The
special features are described in detail in another place. The as-
tronomical instruments of the Centennial Exposition were mostly of
the ordinary constructions, and, although exhibiting well the present
j)ractice of field astronomy and geodesy, presented few novel feat-
ures. A good exhibition of optical glass was made by Fell, of Paris,
and Chauce, of Birmingham. The calculating-engine of Mr, George
Grant, of Boston, and some special optical apparatus and material,
were particularly noteworthy.

A series of astronomical drawings exhibited by Trouvelot, of Cam-
bridge, was especially interesting, on account of the great facilities
at the artist's command for viewing the objects represented, most of
them having been examined with the Harvard College refractor (15
inches).

The progress of the zone observations undertaken by the German
Astronomical Society, one of the most important works of the de-
cade, will be found described in another place.

INDUSTRIAL PEOGKESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. xxvii

METEOROLOGY AND TERRESTEIAL

PHYSICS.

By CLEVELAND ABBE.

METEOROLOGY.

The most interesting feature in the progress of meteorology dur-
ing the year has been the increasing attention paid to the deductive
study of atmospheric movements, as evidenced by the works of Blan-
ford, Ley, Hann, Mohn, and Goldberg, all of whom have contributed
to a clearer knowledge of the rationale of the winds and currents of
the air. In climatology we have to record the publication by the
Smithsonian Institution of the temperature tables and the winds of
the globe. New data have also been published from regions hitherto
but little known such as the volume of meteorological observations
in the Amoor Valley, edited by Von Schrenck, for the St. Peters-
burg Academy of Sciences ; the monthly barometric and other means
for stations in the Argentine Confederacy, published by Dr. Gould ;
the two volumes of details of observations published by the Cana-
dian government.

Of daily weather maps, those published by the Danish and the
United States Weather Bureaus have the widest circulation ; the for-
mer has been extended so as to form a continuation of the United
States maps. The daily bulletin of simultaneous observations, taken
throughout the world at 7.35 A.M., Washington time, has been main-
tained by the Army Signal Service ; and the specimen maps pub-
lished of a weather chart, embracing the entire northern hemisphere,
show that when published for every day, these will mark a new
epoch in meteorology.

We have in the following summary briefly noticed some of the
meteorological events of the year and the publications that have
been received, arranging the notes, as far as possible, in the follow-
ing order, viz. :

A. Meteorological Societies, Institutions, and Individuals.

B. " Instruments and Methods,

C. " Investigations and Results.

A. Institutions and Persons.

At the Geographical Congress at Paris a letter of merit, being the
highest award there recognized, was presented to the United States
Army Signal Service for the perfection of its organization and the
usefulness of its works.

xxviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

In the annual review of meteorological work at present in prog-
ress in England, the Quarterly Journal of the Meteorological Society
states that the marine meteorology of the equatorial regions of the
Atlantic Ocean, as compiled at the Meteorological Office in London,
may be expected to be published during the year, and that upon the
completion of this work the office will proceed to the study of the
meteorology of the neighborhood of the Cape of Good Hope. The
office continues also the collection of data relative to the weather of
the North Atlantic Ocean during August, 1873, in which month, it will
be remembered, the great hurricane occurred in Nova Scotia. For
this purpose some 280 logs of vessels have already been received.

The office has also undertaken the investigation of atmospherical
conditions at high altitudes, and has therefore established a station
at Settle, in Yorkshire, England.

The Scottish Meteorological Society have set on foot an inquiry into
the causes of the earliness or lateness of salmon, by means of obser-
vations made with thermometers continually immersed in the rivers
and in the sea adjoining their mouths, and by gauging the water of
the rivers.

The Scotch Herring Fishery Board have also continued their in-
vestigations into the connection between meteorology and the suc-
cess of the fisheries. Similar observations have been continued in
America by the co-operation of the Fish Commissioners and the
Army Signal Office.

The continuous photographic records of the barometer obtained at
the Greenwich Observatory for nineteen years (1854 to 1873) are be-
ing studied, by Professor Airy, with reference to the possible exist-
ence of any measurable lunar atmospheric tide.

At Edinburgh Professor Smyth repeats the expression of his con-
fidence in the possibility of recognizing particular sets of lines or
bands in the spectrum of daylight, which bands acquire a marked
prominence whenever the atmosphere is charged with watery vapor
at high temperature, or whenever rain is imminent from the south-
east.

Dr. Koppen, of St. Petersburg, has, it is stated, accepted the director-
ship of the German Seewarte, at Hamburg, whose object it is to study
meteorology on a large scale, embracing the movements of the whole
atmosphere of the globe, for which work his published memoirs prove
him to have a peculiar adaptation.

The annual volumes for 1874 and 1875, published by Professor
Kingston, of Toronto, show the great attention paid to the subject
of meteorology in the Dominion, and the energy with which the sys-
tem is being extended. The tri-daily simultaneous observations of
temperature, pressure, and wind are published in full for fourteen
stations, and monthly means are given for numerous others.

At Vienna the annual volume of observations in Austria for 1874

INDUSTEIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. xxix.

has appeared with customary regularity. The tri-daily observations
are published in full for ten stations of the first class. Monthly and
annual means are given for over a hundred stations of the second
and third classes, followed by a general review of the temperature
and rainfall and by the average temperature of each pentade of
the year, according to Dove's system, for about a hundred and twen-
ty stations. The magnetic observations made at Vienna are also given
in full. The pha^nologic observations are a very prominent feature
in the Austrian and Belgian climatological reports, and are given in
full for thirty-three stations and for over one hundred jjlants in the
present volume.

The results of observations on the fisheries made on the German
coast, and their connection with the physical peculiarities of the North
Sea and the Baltic, have been published at Kiel in monthly parts,
which give, first, physical observations made at ten stations on the
Baltic and seven on the North Sea coasts ; second, meteorological
observations made at Kiel, Lubeck,Westerland, and Helgoland; and,
third, fishery statistics for seven stations on the Baltic and one on
the North Sea. The physical observations include determinations
of the temperature of the water at the surface and at considerable
depths below ; the height of the water at morning, noon, and even-
ing ; its specific gravity at and below the surface, and the direction
and velocity of the current. The fisliery statistics give the total catch
of the five more important kinds of fishes, namely, herring, sprat, had-
dock, flounder, and salmon ; and also the details of the methods em-
ployed in fishing for each.

The Annalen for 1874 of the Central Physical Observatory at St.
Petersburg was published in February, 187G, a degree of promptness
equaled only by the punctuality of the publications at Greenwich ;
but far more surprising when we consider that the 600 pages of the
present volume relate, not to work done at single stations, but at
ninety stations scattered over the Russian domains. Such a result
is certainly a high tribute to the excellence of the system and
energy which Professor Wild has infused into the great Russian
establishment. A very complete statement is given of the pecul-
iarities of each station, and the observations, which are published
in full, as in former years, are accompanied by a monthly and an-
nual resume arranged very nearly according to the form of publi-
cation recommended by the Vienna Congress, an accordance M'hich
will be more perfectly attained in the succeeding volumes. The
hope has been earnestly expressed on all sides that the French,
British, and American meteorological offices will ere long take
steps to insure a similar conformity in their climatological publica-
tions.

One of the most valuable contributions to meteorological litera-
ture is the Mepertorium fur Meteorologie^ published by the St. Peters-

XXX GENEKAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

burg Academy of Sciences, under the editorship of Professor Wild,
and which has now reached its fifth volume. Professor Wild an-
nounces that the Central Phj^sical Observatory at St. Petersburg has
received from the Grand Duke Constantine an eligible piece of land
in the imperial park near the city, at Pavlosk, and the necessary ap-
propriation of money for the erection of an auxiliary meteorological
observatory.

The Imperial Meteorological Observatory at Tokio, Japan, has,
under the direction of the government surveyor, Mr. McVean, con-
tinued its observations, and has published five day means and re-
ports in the Yokohama papers.

In addition to the labors of Mr. McVean at Y'okohama, it is un-
derstood that the Japanese government has taken some steps toward
the establishment of more extensive meteorologic studies. On the
one hand the Kai-ta-ku-shi, or the department for the colonization
and development of Jesso, determined, in 1874, to establish eight
stations on that island, and intrusted the organization of the whole
system to Professor G.J. Rockwell ; and, on the other hand, the gen-
eral government is looking to the organization of a system of ob-
servation, and, as far as possible, of telegraphic reports, throughout
Niphon and the lesser islands, under the general supervision of the
department of education.

Professor Foster, of Berne, Switzerland, in presenting the report of
observations for 1873 and 1874, states that a special meteorological
observatory is now being erected in Berne, which will attend espe-
cially to the relations of the atmosphere, to agriculture, forestry, and
hygiene.

The Italian Meteorological Commission has made an elaborate in-
vestigation and report, in which certain regulations are recommend-
ed which will secure almost perfect uniformity among the Italian
observers.

The phenomena of the upi3er strata of the atmosphere are annual-
ly receiving increased attention, especially in France and America ;
in the former country not only frequent balloon voyages, but three
permanent mountain stations contribute to our knowledge of the
subject ; in the latter country, Mr, A. S. King, the aeronaut of Bos-
ton, has continued to make numerous voyages, of which he keeps
careful record, and much is anticipated from observations to be
made by him, at Philadelphia, in a captive balloon. The publica-
tion of De Fonvielle's Aventures Aeriennes is an important contri-
bution to this subject.

A report of the British Royal Science Committee will, it is said,
probably result in soon terminating the anomalous and embarrassing
position that the London Meteorological Ofiice has long occupied in
reference to the government.

Professor Hinrichs has continued to collate and j)ublisli the rain-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. xxxi

fall reports from numerous stations in Iowa. Predictions are also
made by him as to the probable weather for the coming month.

An office for the study of maritime meteorology has been opened
at the '' Depot des Cartes et Plans " in Paris, under the superintend-
ence of M. C. Ploix.

Gautier, of Geneva, has taken especial pains to secure meteorolog-
ical observations in Labrador from the Moravian missionaries, and
has published those made between 1867 and 1874. Besides these,
there exist also some records due to Lamont, of observations about
1841. The original record of observations made by the first mission-
aries in Labrador, from 1776 to 1784, seems to have been accidental-
ly lost to science, until, in 1873, it fell into the hands of the author,
who is engaged in preparing them for publication.

The Permanent Committee of the Vienna Meteorological Congress
held its third annual session at Utrecht, in June, 1876 ; it was re-
ported that almost perfect uniformity had been attained in the pub-
lication of climatological statistics for purposes of international ex-
change. With reference to barometric gradients, it was resolved
that they should be expressed either on the English scale of tenths
of an inch per English mile, or on the metric scale of millimeters per
degree (69^ statute miles). The next meeting of the Permanent
Committee will be held at Rome, September, 1877, on the occasion
of the reassembling of the General Congress.

The Observatory at Melbourne has published three fine volumes of
meteorological observations made in 1872, 1873, and 1874 through-
out the colony of Victoria. Mr, EUery states that he has already
joined in the American system of simultaneous observations, which
is now of world-wide extent.

The Director of the Geological Survey of Brazil, Professor C. F,
Hartt, writes that he hopes to be able to secure a proper attention
to meteorology in tliat important empire.

The Observatory at Batavia, under Dr, Bergsma, has published in
a large quarto volume the hourly observations made from 1866 to
1870.

B. Instruments and Methods.

The most important event in matters relating to instrumental me-
teorology has been the exhibition of the Scientific Loan Collection
at the South Kensington Museum, where an almost exhaustive array
of every conceivable form of apparatus for meteorological research
was presented for the inspection of visitors ; in connection with
these an admirable catalogue and a hand-book were published by
the Royal Science Commission. In the latter volume, dissertations
were contained by. eminent specialists, tliat on meteorology by R. H.
Scott. In the same connection a series of scientific conferences was
held ; that on meteorology occupied three days, ending June 2d.

xxxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

The Centennial Exposition at Pliiladelphia has also been of con-
siderable importance to American meteorologists. There was ex-
hibited there, in active operation, the very beautiful and efficient
printing meteorograph, invented by Theorell, of Sweden, as also one
by Baumhauer, of Haarlem.

Apparatus by the best European and American makers was also
exhibited ; especially noticeable was tiie complete display by the
Army Signal Office of its own methods and instruments.

The general rules for observers as recommended by the Vienna
Congress of 1873 have been very widely accepted by national sys-
tems of meteorological observation, as shown by the annual reports
of Wild at St. Petersburg and Scott at London ; and especially in
the uniformity introduced into the j^ublications of the climatological
observations at Vienna, Christiania, Co23enhagen, London, St. Peters-
burg, and Constantinoi^le.

The aneroid barometer has received great attention of late years,
and bids fair to rival the ordinary mercurial barometer for most pur-
poses. The best instruments appear to be those made by Naudet
& Co., of Paris, and Goldschmid, of Zurich, both of which embody
improvements that ai3pear not yet to have been adopted by other
makers.

Tlie ordinary aneroids have been made the subject of a rather
careful investigation by Grassi, of Pavia, who has considered espe-
cially their adaptation to hypsometric work. In the course of his
memoir he brings to light the liypsometric formula of St. Robert,
Avhich seems to be but little known outside of Italy, but which gives
quite as good results as Ruhlmann's.

Professor Schreiber, of Leipsic, has also paid much attention to
the reliability of the aneroid barometer, and maintains that with
proper care the instruments of Goldschmid, Hipp, and Naudet are
probably equal in reliability to mercurial barometers, provided only
that a proper degree of care be taken in their use. Both kinds of
instruments are, he maintains, essentially relative, rather than abso-
lute, in their indications ; both are liable to serious accidental errors
and changes, and both require to be transported with the same ten-
derness. He especially criticises the too common habit of reading
the aneroid as it hangs vertically, and maintains that it should be
kept with its face horizontal, quite as carefully as a marine chro-
nometer which is hung in its gimbals.

Staff- Engineer George, of the British Navy, projDoses to refill a
mercurial barometer, when used in traveling, at every station occu-
pied by the observer, and to empty it before packing it away for
transportation. He removes any bubbles of air that might be likely
to remain in the tube, not by boiling the mercury, which is both te-
dious and dangerous, but by mechanical means, viz., the introduc-
tion simply of a wire, to the end of which a feather is attached, the

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 187G. xxxiii

repeated twirling of which within the tube agitates the mercury
and dislocates any bubbles of air.

Professor Kedzie, of Lansing, Michigan, has made a series of ozone
observations, which are published by the State Agricultural College.
He recommends that such observations be continued, and gives
the necessary directions. The subject is one which observers will
not consider to have been satisfactorily settled even by the adverse
decision of the Vienna Congress and eminent specialists.

Mr. Scott, of London, communicates to the Meteorological Society
some observations, showing that, on the average, the French " Ther-
mometre Fronde," or whirling thermometer, is not a very decided
improvement upon the ordinary fixed thermometer, when the latter
is properly sheltered from radiations.

Marie Davy has published, in the Bulletin of the Observatory of
Montsouris, full details of all the special apparatus employed there
to study the physics of the atmosphere, by which is especially meant
the study of the part played by aqueous vapor, both visible and in-
visible.

Bosanquet publishes two papers on the " Polarization of the
Light of the Sky." This obscure subject received, in 1805, a new
interest from TyndalFs observations on the delicate blue colors
and polarized light of finely divided vapor. Bosanquet has now for
the first time shown the full bearing of these observations upon the
Subject of atmospheric polarization. He shows that the diminution
of the maximum polarization from zenith to horizon may be regarded
as due to a small increase in the mean size of the particles. Except
in so far as modified by this circumstance, the phenomena observed
in the sky should be arranged symmetrically about an axis drawn
toward the sun, and the neutral points of Brewster and Babinet
become merely special points in a neutral circle about the sun, while
the neutral point of Arago belongs to a similar circle about the ante-
solar point. Within these small circles the polarization is negative,
except at their centres, which ought theoretically to be the only
neutral points in the sky. It is hoped that these diflScult but valu-
able observations will receive the attention they deserve on account
of their bearing upon the moisture of the air. Bosanquet has in a
second memoir, published in the Philosophical Magazine^ given a
method of constructing a polarimeter especially adapted to these
delicate observations.

Great interest has been excited by the ingenious radiometer in-
vented by Mr. Crookes. Some meteorologists in Europe have, we
believe, undertaken regular observations with the instrument, in
hopes of obtaining thereby a measure of the total radiation of the
sun. In this, however, we presume they are doomed to disappoint-
ment, rince it seems to have been abundantly demonstrated that the
rotation of the disks is due to only a small portion of the solar radia-

xxxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

tion, being merely a consequence of their heating effect. It may,
however, be that the instrument, in a modified form, can be used
as an additional means of investigating the important question of
the absorption of the sun's heat by the atmosphere. Among those
who have published investigations on the radiometer may be men-
tioned Poggendorff, Carriugton, Reynolds, Stoney, Dewar, and Tait,
all of whom maintain that the kinematic theory of heat fully ex-
plains its motions.

The subject of solar radiation has been oflacially taken up by the
Meteorological Society of England, which undertakes to carry on
the work begun by the Rev. F. W. Stowe ; the society will, however,
adopt the comparison of the black with the bright bulb thermom-
eter, both in vacuo, instead of comparing the black in vacuo with
the maximum temperature of the air as recorded in the shade.

In connection with this discussion a new series of observations
has been begun, and eleven stations have undertaken observations
on the new plan, from which interesting results must be expected.
Among these stations is the observatory at Kew, at which the regis-
tering sun-dial invented by Mr. Campbell is now in action, it having
been already in operation for several years at Whitehall. This in-
strument consists of a glass sphere set in a wooden bowl ; and the
effect of the sun is measured by the amount of wood charred by the
sun's action in the course of six months.

Mr. Roscoe appeals to the meteorological observatories of the
world to carry on some systematic observations upon the varying
chemical intensity of the direct and diffused solar light. The im-
proved apparatus devised by him is, he states, as simple as could be
wished ; he has made most minute investigations into its errors, and
will undertake the determination of the relative corrections with
respect to the apparatus belonging to other observers, if so desired.

An elaborate work on the source and quantity of work done by
hot-air balloons is published by Papper,who shows that the applica-
tion of air balloons heated by the solar rays, as motors, in place of
our present machines which use coal as the source of heat and work,
is not likely to unite economy with moderate size.

The important hygrometric studies of Dufour have been continued
by him, and form the basis of a second memoir on hygrometric diffu-
sion through partitions of porous earthenware. The results obtained
in his earlier researches are fully corroborated, and minuter investi-
gations have led to still further elaboration of the same complex sub-
ject. It would appear, however, that the hygrometer composed by
him originally may still be relied upon, although each special instru-
ment must require careful investigation and comparison with the
standard. This hygrometer being adapted to give continuous records
like that employed by Bache at Philadelphia, and being far less
troublesome in its operation, may possibly come into general use.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. xxxv

The correction of hygrometric observations for the altitude of sta-
tions above sea-level, which is very large at altitudes exceeding a
few thousand feet, but which is frequently neglected by meteorolog-
ical observers, can be made very easily by means of the table pub-
lished by Hotier in the last annual report of the Commission du Pic
du Midi.

The ninth annual report of the Warden of the Standards in Lon-
don gives, besides current work, a special account of the recent re-
verification of official standards of weight, capacity, and length.
Among the appendices a description is given of the new balance
designed by Mendeleff, one peculiarity of which is that it has very
short arms, although adapted to wxigh large masses.

Some very interesting aerodynamic experiments have been sug-
gested by Professor Tait in connection with the dead heat arrange-
ment proposed by Sir William Thompson for delicate chemical bal-
ances. This arrangement is very sensitive to the least current of air
blowing upon it, and may be made the means of investigating the
diminution of pressure that takes place in a direction at right angles
to any current of air.

A series of observations has been instituted by J. W. Osborne,
of Washington, who has proposed that observers keep a record
of the temperature and its changes so far as they are sensible to the
human body, and can be estimated without regard to thermome-
ters or other instruments. He has, therefore, provided a scale of
terms from one, which is unendurable cold, to twenty, which is un-
endurable heat. A large number of observers having volunteered
to assist him in Washington and its vicinity, he has been able to
show that very satisfactory agreements exist between the estimates
of different observers, and that the diurnal and annual changes in
sensible temperature are well marked. From such observations as
these he hopes to obtain an idea of the relative climates of clifterent
portions of the world, so far as they affect the human system, more
satisfactory than can be deduced from the study of ordinary mete-
orological and instrumental records. Observers in Washington and
in Ohio have co-operated in this system.

Professor Wild, of St. Petersburg, has introduced a new form of
siphon barometer, which consists essentially of two vertical tubes
firmly inserted into the closed cisterns. It is said by him to be more
accurate than the ordinary cistern barometers, although also heavier
and more costly.

The same physicist has also published a careful comparison of Avet
and dry bulb thermometers, observed both with and without a brisk
artificial ventilation. He finds the effect of the artificial currents
quite insignificant as regards the dry bulb ; but they, of course, low-
er the wet bulb, and sufficiently in the summer time to diminish the
apparent humidity. On the average, however, he concludes that the

xxxvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

ordinary thermometer screen, -without ventilation, gives the temper-
ature of the air accurate to one twentieth of a degree Centigrade.

Theorell invented, for the use of tlie Swedisli Arctic Expedition,
an anemometer which maintained a continuous register for the di-
rection and velocity of the wind, notwithstanding the intense cold
to which it was exposed. A full description of it has been recently
published in Wijkander's Memoir, in the 12th volume of the Swed-
ish Academy.

The study of solar radiation by the apj^aratus invented by Viole
has been prosecuted by him by means of observations made on Mont
Blanc, and at lower stations. He concludes the temperature of the
solar surface to be about 1500 Centigrade.

Dr. Robinson, of Armagh, has made an important contribution to
anemometry by the publication of a new analytical theory of his well-
known anemometer.

Du Claux shows that mixtures in definite iDrojDortions of crystal-
lizable salts in water deposit their crystals at very definite temj^era-
tures, and may therefore be used, in some cases, as thermometers.

Jannsen has, by means of temporary apparatus at Montmartre,
been taking daily photographs of the sun. He records that during
the cold spell in France, the first part of May, there were no solar
sj)ots visible a fact quite in accordance with other investigations,
according to which, in high latitudes, the coldest seasons occur when
few sjDots prevail on the sun.

Professor Houston, of the Philadelphia High School, states that he
is at work on a proposed improvement of the barometer, in which
he hopes, by means of a scale floating on the surface of the mercury,
to read with greater ease and precision the atmospheric pressure.

Dr. Hellmann, in his discussion of wind observations, suggests that
we need instruments which shall measure both the vertical and the
horizontal components of the motion of the wind.

C. Investigations and Results.

Professor Loomis has continued his contributions to American me-
teorology, which have been uniformly published in the American
Journal of Science after having been first presented to the National
Academy of Sciences.

In his fifth paper he gives a collection of data relating to hurri-
canes, and deduces for American storms a connection between rain-
fall and the progress of storms.

Maquenne has made an important determination of the power of
leaves to absorb and radiate heat. His experiments, of course, were
conducted at temperatures not exceeding 120 ; and the radiative
powers averaged from 91 to 97 ; while the absorptive powers va-
ried from 94 to 97, lampblack being adopted as the standard of
comparison.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. xxxvii

Dr. Hellmann has contributed a discussion of the observations
made by the Army Signal Office at Mount Washington. He finds
the diminution of temperature with altitude agrees nearly with that
prevailing in Central Europe, The diminution is most rapid with
northw^est winds, and least rapid with southeast winds.

In a review, by Caspari, of a rare work, by Isaac Vossius, " De motu
Marium et Ventorum," publislied at tlie Hague in 1663, it is claimed
that Vossius was the first to definitely promulgate the rule that it is
the rising and falling of the barometer, and not simply its absolute
height, that should guide us in predicting the weather.

Considerable light has been thrown upon the formation and activ-
ity of ammonia in the atmosphere by the works of Schloessing and
others, according to whom the direct assimilation of simple gaseous
nitrogen by plants, and the emission of ammonia, is not admissible.
The formation of ammonia is by them attributed to the chemical ac-
tion of ocean water upon the nitric acid carried into it by rain and
rain-water.

The efi'ect upon the barometer of any movement in the air is de-
duced by Montigny from observations in the tower of the cathedral
at Anvers. He concludes that the barometric pressure diminishes
less rapidly during west winds, and most rapidly during east winds.

Ley finds that of 800 storms passing near Great Britain during
nine years, the large majority had a tendency to move in directions
parallel to the trend of the steepest gradients ; thus when the iso-
bars are closest on the southeast side, the tangents irend toward the
northeast, and fiftj^-five per cent, of these storms move in the same
direction. He finds also evidences of a less important disturbing
force tending to make the depressions move toward the northeast by
east. It would be interesting to compare Ley's rules with the be-
havior of American storms. We can see no reason why they should
obtain for the storms occurring between the Rocky Mountains and
the Atlantic coast.

Blanford, of Calcutta, has published a memoir on the winds of
Northern India, which is a very fine example of inductive reasoning.
His object has been to describe normal wind-currents of Northern
India and their annual variations, and to trace out their origin and
causes in so far as these can be discovered in the local physical
changes in the atmosphere. These causes are, of course, found in
the variable moisture and heat, and the peculiar topography of India,
Very well drawn charts are given, showing the relation between the
movements of the winds and the clouds,

Mr, Blanford's conclusions with regard to the origin of the cy-
clones of the Bay of Bengal apparently accord best with what we
know of similar storms elsewhere, " They form, in a region of calms
or variable winds ; an area of barometric depression and rising tem-
perature is formed several days before the cyclone is generated ; cur-

xxxviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

rents of air set in converging toward this area ; finally, if among
these currents there rushes in a strong southwest or west-southwest
current of air saturated with moisture," this furnishes the required
abundance of vapor, whose rapid condensation gives out the heat
required to form and maintain a cyclone, instead of the small torna-
does that would otherwise be the only result.

In reference to the relation between solar radiation and terrestrial
meteorology, Blanford remarks that in India both the annual and
diurnal changes in temperature are the reverse of the changes in hu-
midity; it would therefore seem that throughout the world, since
there is more water than land surface, the principal effect of an in-
crease in the temperature of the sun would be to increase the quan-
tity of moisture in our atmosphere, and to diminish the temperature
of the air at the immediate surface of the earth.

Plants states that he has observed certain effects that go to show
that the formation of hail is due to an electric discharge of low ten-
sion accompanied by a gyratory movement of the electrified particles
of ice.

Gronemann has published additional develojDments of his theory
of the origin and nature of the aurora, which is that it is an electric
discharge among particles of cosmic dust, clouds of which are en-
countered by the earth in its annual course around the sun. He
finds the explanation of the geographical distribution of the greatest
auroral frequency in a zone lying between the parallels of 50 and
70 of north latitude to consist in the relation between the position
of the earth's axis and the orbits pursued by the cosmic dust. Ac-
cording to this theory there may be periodical auroras one of
which may possibly recur on the 4th of February.

Fritz has compared the frequency of auroras, as recorded in his
great catalogue, with Wolf's observations of the sun-spots. He finds
that the most important auroras agree accurately with the minima
of sun-spots, and that the great aurora period of fifty-five and a half
years also agrees with five of Wolf 's sun-spot periods : he even thinks
it probable that a still longer period of two hundred and twenty-
two years may be detected in the records of the auroras.

Buys Ballot and Wild have published extensive researches upon
the distribution of atmospheric moisture or relative humidity in Eu-
rope. The former finds the data sutRciently extensive to justify the
formation of monthly means and corresponding deviations from the
normal values ; he also deduces the influence of altitude above sea-
level, and of latitude, longitude, and the neighborhood of the ocean,

Hann has published an essay on the climate of the Punjab.
Among the many interesting items we note that the average range
of temperature in a day is from 1G to 20 Centigrade at the three
stations where observations have been made for several years ; the
actual temperatures averaged 33 Centigrade in June, and 10 Centi-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. xxxix

grade in January. The comparative dryness of the air is seen from
the fact that the average humidity throughout the year is about fifty
per cent. The observations at some of the high stations seem to
suggest that the minimum temperatures at an altitude of 7000 feet
are possibly higher than the corresponding minima in the low lands.
Among the stations showing a large rainfall we notice Kangra, where
the annual fall amounts to 110 inches, while at Simla and Dehra the
corresponding amounts are fifty and sixty inches.

Professor Langley, in an article on the solar atmosphere, gives the
results of his measures of the distribution of heat and light over the
solar disk ; the absorption of heat takes place, he thinks, principally
in a thin stratum at the base of the chromosphere. The slightest
change in the solar atmosphere has an appreciable efifect on the ab-
sorption, so that we have here at hand a sufi^cient cause for those
variations in solar heat that geological observations seem to de-
mand. The absorption is also selective, so that the sun tends to
have a bluish tinge when the absorbing layer is thin, but to have a
reddish tinge at other times, affording us thus some rational hypoth-
esis whereby to explain the phenomena of variable stars.

The influence of atmospheric moisture upon the absorptive jDower
of the atmosphere has been further illustrated by Hoorweg, who has,
by a renewed series of observations, conclusively shown the general
correctness of Tyndall's results, according to whom a small percentage
of vapor in the atmosphere increases enormously the absorption and
radiation of obscure heat, and moderates terrestrial climates.

More recently still Lohse has, with great acumen, discussed the
observations of Tyndall, Magnus, and Wild, and has added an excel-
lent investigation of his own, showing that the effect of aqueous va-
por is by no means as decided as maintained by Tyndall.

The relation of warm, dark heat rays to hydrogen and the atmos-
phere has been studied by Buff", of Giessen, who has repeated a series
of experiments bearing on the absorption of heat by the atmosphere,
and concludes that hydrogen is as nearly transparent to heat as a
vacuum, while dry air absorbs fifty or sixty per cent, of heat rays.
The assumption of Tyndall that the power of damp air to absorb
rays of heat coming from a dark source exceeds by fifteen to forty
per cent, the absorptive power of dry air is incorrect. It is correct,
however, to say that such heat rays as are not absorbed in dry air
can become absorbed, or do experience a very sensible diminution
when passing through damp air.

Mendeleff endeavors, by means of Poisson's equation, to arrive at
formulae by which we may calculate the temperature of rarefied air
with a high degree of approximation. In reference to the expansion
of air by heat, he has shown that for pressures between 750 and 770
millimeters tlie coefficient of dilatation of the air is 0.00036843 for 1
degree of Centigrade.

xl GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

Au excellent contribution to our knowledge of the chromatic dis-
persion of gases has been made by Lorenz, of Copenhagen ; and his
investigation of the coefficient of refraction of aqueous vapor will
find an important application in the spectroscopic study of the at-
mosphere.

Hennessey has engaged in an elaborate work on the atmospheric
lines of the solar spectrum. His observations were made among the
outlying hills of the Himalaya Mountains at an elevation of 1700
feet. In this region, near sunset, atmospheric lines are remarkably
well developed, and the effect of aqueous vapor is truly startling.
There can be no doubt that in the hands of skillful observers the
spectroscope must become an invaluable meteorological instrument,
and will perhaps eventually give quantitative as well as qualitative
indications.

Two very elaborate memoirs are to be found in the official publi-
cations of the Italian Meteorological Office. One is due to Denza, on
the distribution of rain and barometric pressure in Italj'^ ; the other,
by Ragona, is on the distribution of temperature.

Professor Reynolds has made a further communication to the Roy-
al Society on the refraction of sound by the atmosphere, fully con-
firming the positions previously advanced by himself and by Pro-
fessor Henry. Interesting relations seem to exist between these phe-
nomena and the state of the atmosj^here before or during storms, etc.

Jordan, of Carlsruhe, contributes to the theory of atmospheric re-
fractions an article in the AstronomiscTie Nachrichten^ in which he
shows that, without making any assumj^tion as to the decrease of
temperature with altitude, we may, by a general assumption as to
the curvature of the ray of light, obtain simpler tables and better
results than by any of the tables now in use.' Inversely, then, the
average temperature of the air can be determined from refraction
observations, as others have done from barometric observations, and
thus valuable new meteorological results arrived at.

An interesting paper, both in a theoretical and practical point of
view, is that by Dr. Von Lang, of Vienna, on experiments on the fric-
tion between water and air. These experiments were made by
measuring the amount of air drawn along after a falling column of
water. The friction of air slipjDing over the surface of water and
causing it to slowly follow is one of the important elements in ter-
restrial physics, and is directly involved in Von Lang's experi-
ments, which have also a direct bearing on the origin of the gust of
wind that precedes falling rain and hail.

The severe storm of March 12, 1876, has been the subject of a
memoir by Quetelet, according to whom it was the severest that
has been observed at Brussels since the period of exact observa-
tions at that place.

Montigny contributes an investigation into the law of diminution

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. xli

of pressure in the atmospheric strata during storms, and shows that
according to the direction of the wind and the condition of the
barometer as to rising or falling very marked deviations may be
noted at moderate altitudes from the normal distribution of press-
ure. For instance, during easterly winds in Belgium, the barometer
at the upper station is low^, during westerly winds it is high.

Von Bezold has published a second memoir on the phenomena of
thunder-storms in Eurojie, in which he shows that there is a pretty
well marked double maximum during the summer months in the
northern hemisphere, and that these maxima are the better distin-
guished from each other in proportion as w^e go farther away from
the equator ; wherefore he suggests that they may be considered as
due to the existence of the two summers of equatorial regions, or, in
other words, that they follow the tw^o passages of the sun across the
equator in the course of the year.

The diurnal variability of temperature has been investigated by
Hann, who has extended his observations to a large number of sta-
tions scattered throughout Europe and Asia, He shows that the
daily variability reaches its maximum in the interior of North
America, A second region of maximum is found in Western Siberia,
at a higher latitude than in America.

The shores of the Caspian and Baltic are visited by storms of
fierce northerly wdnds, precisely similar to the " northers " of the
Texas and Mexican coasts, A detailed study into the phenomena
of the Bora, as it is called, at Novarussisk, has been published by
Laron Wrangell, According to him, the violent wdnds that visit
this fine harbor acquire their force from the fact that they consist es-
sentially of cold dense air, wdiich descends the mountain-sides. He
calculates theoretically the violence of the wind ; and having shown
the satisfactory agreement of his formula wnth actual observation,
concludes that his explanation of its origin must be accepted, and
thence is led to propose a method by which the harbor may be pro-
tected, or, rather, by which the wind itself may be diminished, if not
prevented.

The movement of water in rivers has been the subject of a series
of very extensive experiments by Captain Allen Cunningham, of
India, and his work ranks in importance with that of Humphrey
and Abbott, and the recent investigators in Europe.

An excellent memoir has been published by Dr. Armieux on some
results of observations made on the Pic du Midi, and especially on
the presence of red snow in the Pyrenees, and on the general history
and condition of the question as to the exact nature of this phe-
nomenon.

The formation of snow crystals has been observed by Tissandier
in a balloon ascension : he notes that a stratum of warm air accom-
panied the thin stratum of ice crystals; the higher temi3erature was

xlii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

undoubtedly due to the evolution of heat during the formation of
snow.

Van der Mennsbrugghe shows that every disturbance in the surface
of a liquid gives rise to electric currents, and deduces thence the
conclusion that the change from invisible vapor to condensed drops
of fog or rain must affect the atmospheric electricity, while the orig-
inal evaporation of water from the ocean is a constant source of
electric currents ; whence he frames a comparatively simple theory
to account both for terrestrial electricity and atmospheric elec-
tricity.

Lemstrom has developed, in the Geneva Archives, his views on the
nature and origin of the aurora. His theory regards this as mainly
a terrestrial phenomenon, due to electrical discharges through the
upper regions of thin air (similar to the discharges through a Geiss-
ler tube), and also between this air and the earth ; according to
him, the upper stratum of air forms a great conductor, which is near-
er the earth in the polar than in the equatorial regions.

The aurora of April 7, 1874, has been elaborately investigated by
the author in a memoir published in the Annual Report of the Chief
Signal Officer of the Army. In a note on the origin of atmospheric
electricity. Professor Tait states that he has been making a series of
experiments to ascertain the part played by aqueous vapor in the
production of atmospheric electricity. While water is in the form
of vapor, it must be electrified by contact witli the gases of the at-
mosphere, as they are by contact with each other. He finds that the
precipitation of vapor in a receiver, whether produced by cold or by
exhaustion of the air, is always accompanied with a disengagement
of electricity. Further experiments with receivers of very great ca-
pacity are promised by Professor Tait.

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.

No. 14 of the contributions to Terrestrial Magnetism, by General
Sir Edward Sabine, is published in Vol. CLXV. of the London Philo-
sophical Transactions. In this he presents the second half of the
magnetic survey of the northern hemisphere, of which the first half
constituted No. 13 of his contributions. These two j^apers, taken to-
gether with No. 12, which belongs to the southern hemisphere, em-
brace fully three fourths of the entire globe. In the present paper,
declination, inclination, and magnetic force in British units, and cor-
rected as far as possible to the epoch of 1842.5, are given for all
available stations, arranged in four zones 10 broad, from the equator
northward. A table is also given, comparing the observations pub-
lished by Sabine with the formulae and observations of Gauss and
Weber.

The magnetic observations made at twelve of the stations occu-
pied by the Transit of Venus parties were conducted in accordance

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. xliii

with instructions emanating from the Observatory at Stonyhurst, in
England. They were continued for about five months at intervals
of every two hours, and will afford valuable data relating to terres-
trial magnetism.

The Bureau of Longitudes at Paris has published a map of mag-
netic variations for France, for 1876, prepared by Marie Davy, which
will hereafter be issued annually in connection with the Annuaire
of the bureau.

Lieutenant Weyprecht presents a synopsis of the results of the
magnetic observations made by the Austrian Polar Expedition un-
der his command in 1872-1873, in which he states that declination,
inclination, and total intensity are greater in the regions traversed
by himself than as given by General Sabine for 1840-1845, and than
those computed by Erman and Petersen for 1829, according to Gauss'
formula. His observations of daily variation are the only ones as
yet published from arctic regions, except those made at Lake Atha-
baska and Fort Simpson. From them it seems to result that the
total intensity sulfered little or no variation in consequence of the
magnetic perturbations, which latter affected only the declination
and inclination.

VULCANOLOGY.

Of recent publications in reference to earthquakes, we should men-
tion the two important volumes by Schmidt, at Athens, one of which,
" Studies on Earthquakes," affords the best collection extant of sta-
tistics of this phenomenon and its relation to the moon, the baromet-
ric pressure, etc. The second volume, " Studies upon Volcanoes," is
especially devoted to Santorin, Vesuvius, Bale, Stromboli, and Etna.
In his observations upon these volcanoes, Schmidt has combined the
accuracy of an astronomer's studies with the caution of the true in-
vestigator.

Serpieri has subjected to a detailed study the observations of earth-
quakes that have been made in Italy by means of delicate pendulum
seismometers. According to Alexis Perry, Serpieri's memoir is one
of the most important that has lately appeared on this subject.

Pictet has communicated to the Society of Physical Sciences at
Geneva the results of his experiments made in Egypt on the propa-
gation of the heat rays of the sun through different substances, espe-
cially sand. He had proposed to himself to verify the idea suggested
by Sorat, that the sand acted somewhat like a sheet of glass ; that is
to say, that it was diathermanous for luminous heat, and atherma-
uous for obscure heat. Pictet has found that in the diurnal changes
of temperature a much greater accordance takes place between the
sand and the glass than other substances, like wood or coal, even
when these two latter have been painted the color of sand.

Mohr shows that the observations of temperature in the artesian

xliv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

well at Sperenberg conclusively demonstrate that as we descend
into the earth the rate of increase of the temperature steadily dimin-
ishes, and that therefore, at a given depth, the temperature must be-
come stationary. It follows that the origin of the internal heat of
the earth is to be looked for, not in the presence of an internal molt-
en nucleus, but in the chemical or other action going on in the strata
themselves. This result is, however, ably controverted by Dunker
and Moesta.

In the A?iiiual of the Imperial Geological Institution at Vienna m'c
find an essay on springs and their formation, by Dr. E. Tietze.

The study of the internal heat of the earth is much facilitated
by lists of thermal springs, such as that compiled by Dr. Gilbert, of
Professor Hayden's Survey, and publislied officially by him. The
connection between the thermal springs and the disturbed or un-
disturbed condition of geological strata is clearly shown by the
chart which accompanies Mr. Gilbert's j^aper.

The submarine explosion at Hell-gate, under the direction of Gen-
eral Abbott, was taken occasion of for measuring the velocity with
which the shock was communicated through the earth. Four deli-
cate seismometers were established at stations distant respectively
5, 9, 8, and 13 miles. The velocities of transmission for the cor-
responding stations were respectively 39, 45, 83, and 53 hundred feet
per second. The shock received at each station was of the nature
of a continued vibration, and not a short, sharp one. The observers
at the stations lay upon the ground and listened to the rumbling of
the earth, which occurred simultaneously with the sound. The dis-
cordant determinations of the velocity probably should be attributed
to the various natures of the strata of rock and earth through which
the sound was transmitted.

INDUSTRIAL PEOGUESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. xlv

PHYSICS.

By GEORGE F. BAKKER,
Professor of Physics in the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.

The progress in physical science has been fully up to that of pre-
vious years. In General Physics^ Crova has suggested a most excel-
lent experiment for showing the relation of heat, electricity, and
mechanical work to each other. The apparatus used is a Clamond
thermo-battery, a Gramme magneto-electric machine, and a coil of
platinum wire inclosed in a glass globe. First, if the wire coil be
attached to the battery alone, the heat from the gas flame, trans-
formed into electricity by the battery, reappears as heat in the ex-
ternal circuit. Second, if the Gramme machine be '^wt in the circuit
in place of the coil, the electricity developed by the heat is trans-
formed into mechanical w^ork, and the machine acts as a motor.
Third, if both coil and machine are put in circuit, heat is produced
in the coil, and work in the machine. But if now the machine be
stopped, the incandescence of the wire is increased ; as it gradually
acquires velocity again, the glow of the wire is reduced. The ex-
penditure of heat necessary to produce a given quantity of work is
thus made evident to the eye. Finally, if the machine be turned by
hand in the direction of its previous rotation, the incandescence of
the wire diminishes, until finally a A^elocity is reached at which the
wire no longer glow^s at all. But if the rotation be in the opposite
direction, the incandescence increases until the wire fuses. The ad-
ditional energy introduced appears as heat.

Ettingshausen has made an ingenious use of the stroboscoj)ic
method of Mach for the purpose of studying the uniformity of mo-
tion of rotating bodies. The rotations compared were obtained
with an electro-magnetic motor w^ith Helmholtz's regulator and an
accurately constructed clock-w'ork. The former of these gave the
most uniform motion.

Another noteworthy event has been the presentation to the Royal
Society of a paper by C. W. Siemens, describing an instrument to
which he gives the name of bathometer, and by wdiich the depth of
water at any point in the ocean may be ascertained by simple in-
spection, without the use of a sounding-line. It consists of a vertical
column of mercury inclosed in a steel tube having cup-like exten-
sions at its ends. The lower end is closed by a corrugated steel
diaphragm, the weight of mercury resting upon it wdiich is of
course affected by the force of gravitation being balanced in the

xlvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

centre of the diaphragm by the elastic force of four carefully tem-
pered steel springs which is independent of any variation of
gravity. Being open to the atmosphere both above and below, the in-
strument is unaffected by variations in the pressure of the air. The
peculiar form of the column was given to it in order to render the
instrument parathermal, or independent of temperature. The read-
ing is effected either by electric contact or by means of a spiral
graduated tube fixed on the top of the instrument, and communi-
cating with the space above the mercury, which contains a liquid
of less density partially filling the tube. The graduations are em-
pirical, since this is much easier than calculation. Experiments in
the Faraday with Sir William Thomson's sounding-line gave 82
fathoms at 12, 204 fathoms at 1.08 P.M., and 69 fathoms at 2.20 ;
the bathometer showed 82,218, and 78.

In Mechanics^ Kimball has published the results of some experi-
ments made by him to ascertain whether the coefiicient of sliding
friction is constant at all velocities, as it is ordinarily stated to be, or
whether it varies inversely as the velocity, as certain practical results
seem to render probable. The figures given show : (1) that with a
given inclination of the plane, the coefficient of friction decreases
as the velocity increases, rapidly at first, but more slowly after-
ward ; (2) with the same velocity, the coefficient of friction is great-
er the greater the inclination of the plane, within the limits of the
exjieriments ; (3) that the coefiicient of friction in each experiment
tends toward a constant quantity ; and (4) this constant seems to be
the same in each experiment.

The same physicist has studied the changes produced in the
physical properties of steel by tempering. He finds (1) that the
modulus of elasticity decreases as the hardness of the steel increases ;
(2) that the increase of defiection in a given time is greater the
harder the steel ; (3) that the immediate set increases with the
hardness of the steel ; and (4) that a bar recovers from a temporary
set with greater rapidity the harder it is.

The process of M. De la Bastie for hardening glass has met with
a formidable rival. F. Siemens, the well-known Dresden manufact-
urer, has patented a method of hardening, tempering, and j^ress-
ing glass all at the same time. Instead of plunging the softened
glass in a bath of cold oil, the molten glass is run into suitable
moulds, and while still highly heated is squeezed, the moulds
which are generally of metal having the effect of giving the nec-
essary cooling. For blown glass, shells or casings of platinum are
made, and these are transferred to the mould together with the
glass.

Lawrence Smith has devised a simple form of compensating pen-
dulum, founded on the considerable expansibility of hard rubber or
vulcanite by heat. The seconds pendulum he uses consists of a

INDUSTRIAL PROGKESS DURING THE YEAR 187G. xlvii

steel rod 6 mm. in diameter, over the lower end of which is passed a
tube of vulcanite 25 mm. in diameter and 165 mm. long, secured by
an adjusting screw at the lower end of the pendulum rod. A brass
bob 63 mm. in diameter and 156 mm. long slides over this vulcanite
tube, and rests upon its top. The upward exjjansion of the vulca-
nite should be equal to that of the steel rod and the bob downward.
The coefficient of exjDansion for 1 Centigrade of the vulcanite was
0.000079365.

Cailletet, who has been working upon the problem of chemical
action under high pressures, has contrived a simple form of pressure
gauge, founded on the compressibility of glass. By experiment he
proved that a cylindrical glass reservoir suffers, when compressed, a
diminution of volume exactly proportional to the pressure exerted.
The new manometer consists, therefore, of a large glass thermometer,
with a cylindrical bulb containing either a colored liquid or mercu-
ry, and inclosed in a cavity in a steel reservoir, communicating by
a brass tube with the apparatus in which the pressure is to be meas-
ured. To maintain the temperature constant, the whole apparatus
is f)laced in melting ice during use. The indications are reliable.

Parish has described a simple form of balance for taking specific
gravities of solids, constructed somewhat like a common form of
letter scale, with unequal arms, the substance being placed in a pan
(which can be immersed in water) at the end of the shorter arm,
while the longer is graduated directly to give the specific gravity.

Schott has examined the character of the crystallizations which
are produced in common glass under various conditions, with a view
to elucidate the chemical character of glass itself.

Nipher has published a paper on the variation in the strength of
a muscle, in which he calls attention to the fact that after the rela-
tion of the strength of a muscle to the dynamical work of exhaustion
has been determined, its strength at any time is easily found by
measuring the dynamical work of exhaustion. He also finds that
the coefficient of power of a muscle per square centimeter of its
section is very variable ; so that the work a muscle can do depends
not alone upon its size, but also upon its quality.

Victor Meyer has devised a simple and very efiective method of
determining the solubility of salts in solvents, Avhich is rapid and
accurate, whatever be the temperature at which the solubility is
taken.

Meunier has observed a quartzose sandstone from the vicinity of
Orsay, Department of Seine-et-Oise, France, perforated through and
through by the roots of trees. The grains of quartz are held togeth-
er by a calcareous cement, which is the material upon which the
carbonic gas exhaled by the roots has exerted its solvent action.
These roots were those of the elm, and were of all sizes, from a cen-
timeter and more to less than a millimeter in diameter. The author

xlviii GENERAL SUMMAKY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

thinks that possibly in this way roots may insinuate themselves into
rocks far anterior in age, and thus be regarded as much older than
they really are.

Lescoeur has studied the influence of chemical character upon the
gyratory motions which are observed whenever certain substances,
such as camphor, for example, are placed on the surface of pure
water. He has obtained the result wdtli the acids belonging to the
fatty series and with many of their acid salts, though only in a
slight degree with normal salts. A fragment of glacial acetic acid,
for example, moves very actively on w^ater and dilute acetic acid,
but not on the concentrated acid or on mercury. So also of propi-
onic, butyric, and valeric acids.

May has published a memoir on hydrodiffusion, or the diffusion
of a heavier liquid into water, in which he gives experimental and
mathematical evidence to sustain the hypothesis of Fick or a mod-
ification of it that the passage of a dissolved substance from one
solvent to a second proceeds according to the theorem which Fou-
rier established for the passage of heat along a conductor.

Guthrie has investigated the conditions of production of station-
ary liquid weaves in both circular and rectangular troughs, intend-
ing therefrom to deduce the velocity of wave progression from the
frequency of the recurrence of a given phase in the same place.
With circular troughs he noticed that with binodal motion ^, e.,
motion produced by oscillations at the centre the number of vibra-
tions is independent of the amplitude and of the temperature; that
the normal rate of pulsation is not reached unless there is a depth
of at least six inches; that the chemical nature of the liquid is with-
out effect on the rapidity of oscillation; that the rajDidity of progres-
sion of such waves varies directly as the square root of the wave
length ; and that the nodal line of such circular waves is one sixth
of the diameter from the circumference. Hence it follows that a
wave a meter long would travel 83.07 meters a minute, or a little
more than three miles an hour.

Marey has published a valuable memoir on the movements of
liquid waves in elastic tubes, in wdiich are given the results of experi-
ments made to elucidate the circulation of the blood, particularly
w^ith reference to the character of the pulse as determined with the
author's well-known sphygmograph. By means of a very ingenious
little apparatus called an explorator, several of wiiich are placed
along the length of the tube through which the wave moves, com-
pressed air is made to move a style at the instant the w^ave passes.
This style records the movement, both in time and in form, upon a
blackened cylinder, whose, surface moves twenty-eight centimeters
per second. The author's conclusions from these experiments have
a high physiological imj)ortance.

The same author has contrived an ingenious dial log for vessels,

INDUSTRIAL PKOGKESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. xlix

by which the speed of a vessel at any given instant may be ascer-
tained by inspection. It consists of two corrugated circular boxes
like those used in aneroid barometers, but not exhausted, the one
side of each of which communicates with a tube passing into the wa-
ter. These two tubes are bent at right angles at their lower ends, and
face opposite ways. The inside faces of the boxes are connected by
means of a rod having rack-work upon it, into which gears a pinion
upon the arbor of an index hand. Should the pressure in one box
be different from that in the other, the rod would move, and the in-
dex too. But whatever the absolute variation of pressure, provided
it is the same in both boxes, no effect is produced on the dial. By
means of connecting tubes and an aspirator, the wdiole apparatus is
filled with water. Then it is unaffected by the vessel's pitching
and tossing, and indicates only the speed with which she passes
through the water. By simple means it may be made self-record-
ing,

Romilly has studied the action of a current of air or steam in
drawing into its course the surrounding air, using for this purpose
various forms of openings and ajutages. The same results were ob-
tained with air and steam, the maximum pressure in the receiver be-
ing obtained wdien the receiving cone has an angle of 5 to 7, the
base directed away from the jet. This latter is placed at a distance
from it determined by making the jet the apex, and the opening of
the receiving tube the base of a cone of 15. TJien the quantity of
air drawn in is directly as the diameter of the two openings (of the
jet and receiving cone) ; the velocity is in the inverse ratio ; the
pressure is inversely as the section of the receiving tube, the abso-
lute pressure varying according as the receiver is opened or closed.
He has also observed that, using a receiver with thin walls, if the
jet be removed only a few millimeters from it, and directed not into
the opening of this receiver, but just outside of it, and upon the wall
itself, a maximum of pressure is produced more than double of that
obtained when the jet enters the orifice. Using a jet provided, like
the receiver, with lateral w^alls, there is no longer a pressure, but an
aspiration produced, even at considerable distances.

Penaud has presented to the French Academy an important mem-
oir on aviation, in which he describes his new apparatuses for me-
chanical flight. He divides the systems of aviation already proposed
into three classes : helicopters, aeroplanes, and orthopters. In the
first, screw-propellers with nearly vertical axes constitute the sus-
taining power ; in the second, the surfaces are nearly plane, inclined
slightly to the horizon, and the apparatus is propelled by screws ;
the third are furnished with organs whose surfaces have nearly ver-
tical and alternating movements. In 1870 one variety of helicopters
was constructed which would rise to a height of fifteen meters, and
remain in the air for twenty seconds. In 1871 an aeroplane was

3

1 GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

presented to the Society of Aerial Navigation, which was most suc-
cessful. But a year later a mechanical bird was produced which es-
sentially solved the problem.

Moreau has made a series of exj)eriments to determine the precise
function of the swimming-bladder of fishes. He shows very ingen-
iously that fishes which possess such a bladder undergo variations of
internal pressure, and hence that they do not, as is generally stated,
make use of muscular power to preserve their density unaltered when
this pressure cl^anges. The function of the swimming-bladder, then,
in Moreau's opinion, is to enable the fish to adapt itself to all depths,
not by a mechanical action exerted upon this by means of its mus-
cles, but solely by changing the quantity of air which is contained
in this organ.

Wagner has made an investigation of the accuracy of the results
obtained with the effusion aj^paratus of Schilling for determining
the density of gases. Three perforated platinum plates were used,
having holes of different sizes. With coal gas the density was 0.46
with the largest, 0.47 with the mean, and 0.48 with the smallest
opening. Oxygen gave 1.21, 1.08, and 1.21 under these conditions,
the true density being 1.10. Hydrogen gave 0.22, 0.20, and 0.23, its
actual density being 0.069. Carbonic acid gave 1.51, 1.36, 1.36, in-
stead of 1.52. For gases other than coal gas, therefore, the method
is inaccurate. And even for this the variation from the actual den-
sity, as determined by the balance, was 0.03, a value of great impor-
tance so far as the illuminating power is concerned.

Lecoq de Boisbaudran has proposed a simple form of cock for gas
or water. In the middle of a piece of small glass tube a plug is
firmly fixed, and a hole is bored into the tube on each side of it.
A short piece of larger tube is taken, a cork thrust into it about
half its length, bored to receive the first -mentioned tube. This
cork has a lateral opening. Both ends of the larger tube are
closed with corks, the smaller passing through them. If now the
hole in the smaller tube be opjDosite the lateral opening in the cork
within the larger tube, there will be a free flow of water or gas
through the whole ; but by rotating the tubes half round, the open-
ing in the tube is closed by the cork, and the flow ceases.

ACOUSTICS.
Mercadier has published the results of his experiments on the vi-
bration of steel forks, from which he concludes, first, that the number
of vibrations of such forks, other things being equal, is independent
of their breadth ; second, that the number of vibrations is directly
as the thickness ; and, third, that this number is inversely as the
square of the length. These results are in comj)lete accordance with
those calculated from the theory of elasticity in solids. With re-
gard to the amplitude of the vibration as affecting its isochronism,

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 187G. U

the author concludes, first, that the vibrations of a fork are not ab-
soUitely isochronous, the duration of its period varying with the am-
plitude and the temperature ; second, that consequently any chro-
nographic instrument can give comparable results at ditferent times
only if the temperature and the amplitude remain the same ; and,
third, that if the amplitude does not exceed three or four millime-
ters, and if the temperature varies but slightly, the number of peri-
ods per second may be exact to 0.0001 nearly.

Mayer has given in Nature some notes of remarkable exjjeriments
in acoustics on the obliteration of one sound bv another. He finds
that the ticking of a clock, for example, completely obliterates the
ticking of a watch at the periods of coincidence, the intensity of the
clock ticks which effect this obliteration being three times that of
the watch ticks. Moreover, he observes that a sound can not oblit-
erate another lower in pitch than itself a result of great physiolog-
ical significance. These fiicts the author applies to orchestral
music, and shows that this obliteration of higher by lower sounds
should and does seriously mar the intended effect of the music, and
hence that the study of its conditions is necessary in musical com-
position.

The same physicist has published a preliminary note on two new
methods of research in acoustics, in which he asks the privilege of
being permitted to develop them. The first is a plan for the deter-
mination of the relative intensities of sounds of the same pitch.
This is effected by placing a loose membrane any wdiere between
the centres of origin of tw^o sounds of the same pitch, and perjjen-
dicular to the line joining them, and then by any device determin-
ing the position where the membrane ceases to vibrate. The instru-
ment he calls a phonometer. The second is a method for deter-
mining the direction of sounds. It consists of a membrane capable
of being moved in any azimuth, and which can therefore be placed
at right angles to a sonorous w^ave front. When it reaches this po-
sition it can not vibrate, since the impulses are alike on the two
sides. To increase the aural parallax, two resonators may be used at
the ends of a horizontal rod.

Dvorak has studied certain attractions and repulsions observed in
the vicinity of sonorous bodies when they are vibrating. If, for ex-
ample, a rod of wood be made to vibrate slowly, and a small square
of paper suspended by a silk filament be moved slowdy around it,
the surface of the paper being preserved vertical, it will be noticed
tliat in certain positions there will be attraction, and in certain oth-
ers repulsion of the paper. The author attributes these movements
to currents of air generated by the vibrating mass, and proves his
theory by a number of highly interesting experiments.

Miiller has experimented to determine the pitch of the notes given
by transversely vibrating rods of gypsum when dry and when

lii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

moistened with various liquids. His results show (1) that the
changes in tone produced by the absorption of liquids are also ac-
companied by a variation actually a decrease in the coefficient
of elasticity ; this effect is most marked with water, less with alco-
hol, and still less with oil ; and (2) the variations of tone of the
various rods w^hen wet, in comparison with a dry rod, follow a
definite law, a comparison of the condition of such a rod when
it has taken up a liquid showing a change in its modulus which
is quite definite in amount, and depends only on the liquid em-
ployed.

Bosanquet has communicated to the Musical Association a second
paper on temperament, or the jiroper division of the octave, in which
he considers carefully all that has been done in the subject, and sug-
gests a plan of his own for the purpose. To test the question, he
has had a harmonium constructed with a compass of only four and
a half octaves ; but as each octave has fifty-three keys (!), the num-
ber of notes is quite suflScient. A previous instrument had eighty-
four keys in each octave.

Professor Foster has exhibited to the Physical Society of London
the apparatus devised by Mach for sound reflection. It consists of
a mathematically exact elliptic tray, highly polished, and provided
with a tightly fitting glass cover. The tray is covered with precip-
itated silica well dried. Upon repeatedly discharging a Leyden-jar
between two small knobs placed in one of the foci, the finely di-
vided silica is seen to arrange itself in curves around the other

focus.

HEAT.

Wallace has made a series of experiments on the Bunsen burner,
with a view to utilize it for general heating purposes. In one form
of burner devised by him the tube contains a simple strip of metal
so folded as to split up the rising currents, and so producing an inti-
mate mixture of the gas and air. Such a burner will not strike down.
In another form, called by him the tangent burner, the gas enters a
circular chamber tangentially, drawing in the air with it. In this
way the two are thoroughly mixed ; and if now they pass into the
tube of the burner through a piece of gauze at its base, the burner is
safe and trustworthy under all variations of j^ressure and quality of
gas. To utilize the burner for heating purposes, the author pro-
posed a stove six feet high and fifteen inches in diameter, with a
partition dividing it vertically from the bottom to within six inches
of the top. The burner is at the bottom of one division, and the
outlet pipe at the bottom of the other.

Puluj has described a simple and easily constructed forni of ap-
paratus for determining as a lecture experiment the mechanical
equivalent of heat. It consists of two truncated cones of cast iron,
one of which is fixed, the other movable, revolving within the first

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 187G. Hii

and in contact with it. The power consumed is measured by a kind
of Prony brake arrangement, and the rise of temperature by a ther-
mometer placed in mercury in the inner cone. The mean result
given by fifty-seven experiments with this machine is 426.7 kilo-
gramme-meters.

Puschl has investigated the fact, observed by Schmulewitsch, that
caoutchouc when free dilates by heating, but that when stretched it
contracts. From the theoretical consideration that the elasticity
of a body increases with the temperature when at a maximum of
density, and decreases when the density is a minimum, the author
concludes that caoutchouc has a minimum density, the temperature
of which diminishes as the tension increases. This temperature is
above the ordinary temperature for caoutchouc without tension, the
coefficient of dilatation being positive ; it is inferior to the ordinary
temperature for strongly stretched caoutchouc, the coeflicient being
negative.

Violle has experimentally investigated anew the question of the
sun's temperature. He used a thermometer, carefully made, reading
to one fifth of one degree, and blackened, placed within a copper
sphere, also blackened. A second sphere of copjDer, externally pol-
ished, surrounds the first, the space between them being so arranged
as to have a constant current of water of any desired temperature
conveyed through it. On opposite sides of these concentric spheres
are tubulures by wdiicli the solar radiation enters, closed by a plate
having several openings of different sizes. His results, when re-
duced, show that every square centimeter of the earth's surface at
the places named receives the number of units of heat (gramme-de-
grees Centigrade) placed opposite :

Summit of Mont Blanc 2.392

Grands Mulets 2.262

Glacier des Bossons 2.022

At the level of Paris 1.745

Assuming the correctness of Dulong and Petit's law, calculation
from these numbers gives 1500"^ Centigrade as the temperature of the
sun. But not desiring to assume this, Violle made direct experi-
ments with his apparatus upon the heat radiated from Siemens-Mar-
tin steel when running into the moulds. From the data obtained
he gives 1300 Centigrade as the temperature of the metal. This
increases only a little the previous value ; and after making all the
allowances fairly demanded, the author maintains stoutly that the
mean temperature of the sun does not sensibly difler from 2500
Centigrade.

Jannetaz has studied the propagation of heat in crystallized bodies
in an ingenious manner. Instead of perforating the crystal plate, as
has been done by previous experimenters, he used a small truncated

liv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

cone of platinum, having on each side of its base a j)latiniim wire
leading to the batteiy. The crj^stal plate is previously covered with
some easily fusible substance (the author prefers lard), the little cone
is brought upon its centre, and the circular or elliptical form of the
liquefied portion of the covering material becomes very soon appar-
ent. By this means Jannetaz has obtained some very curious re-
sults.

Maumen^ has communicated to the French Academy the results
of his experiments on the temperature produced by mixing together
olive-oil and concentrated sulphuric acid, in which he calls attention
to the remarkable fact that the evolution of heat is greater if tlie
acid has, just before use, been heated to ebullition. The same fact
is true, he thinks, of other bodies having a high boiling-point. Such
bodies by thus being heated suffer no proper chemical alteration,
but undergo, apparently, a change in molecular structure, the evi-
dence of w hich is a variation in the number of calories produced
in their chemical actions. For example, fifty grammes of olive-oil
mixed with ten cubic centimeters of acid recently boiled produce a
rise of temperature of 42. Using a specimen of acid two months
old, of specific gravity 1.845, the rise was only 34.5 ; the same acid
freshly distilled gave a rise of 44.

Witz has experimented successfully with the freezing mixture sug-
gested by Pierre and Puchot, i. e., a mixture of hydrochloric acid
and snow. He finds, for example, that 250 grammes of fine snow at
zero mixed at once with 250 grammes of hydrochloric acid (com-
mercial) of specific gravity 1.1823, at 1, give in the course of one
minute a solution having a temperature of 37.5. If the acid be
cooled previously to 18, the mixture produces a cold sufiicient to
freeze mercury very readily.

Page has described a simple form of gas regulator, which has the
especial advantage that it is not affected by variations in the baro-
metric pressure. It consists of a mercurial thermometer, the stem
of which is three sixteenths of an inch in inside diameter and open
at the top. The gas is admitted through a fine tube which is
placed within the thermometer tube, so that the rise of the mercury
within this cuts off the supply of gas when the desired temperature
is exceeded. This regulator kept a beaker of water for four or five
hours within a range of 0,2 Centigrade, and kept the temperature
of an incubator for six weeks within 0,5 Centio-rade.

The intimate relation between the diffusion, the viscosity, and the
conductibility of a gas on the mechanical theory of heat renders in-
teresting some careful experiments of Kundt and Warburg upon the
last two properties of gases above given. The results obtained give
for the friction coefiicient of air at 15 the number 0.000189, for hy-
drogen 0.0000923, and for carbon dioxide 0,000152. The value ob-
tained for aqueous vapor was 0,0000975, The correspondence be-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 187G. ly

tween these numbers obtained in a good vacimm and those of
Graham and Maxwell at ordinary pressures, proves that this coeffi-
cient is independent of pressure. The coefficient of conductibility
was determined from the time which a thermometer placed in the
gas required to cool. At a certain limit of pressure the influence of
convection disappeared, the cooling being due solely to radiation
and conduction. By obtaining the most complete vacuum possible,
they saw the rapidity of cooling become independent of the form of
the vessel, and hence the conductibility is nil. In this way they
showed the conductibility of hydrogen to be 7.1 times that of air,
while that of carbon dioxide is 0.59. A curious fact observed was
that the rapidity of cooling is by far the best test of the i^erfectiou
of a vacuum.

Duclaux has observed and investigated the curious fact that a
homogeneous liquid mixture may, by a change of temperature or by
certain additions, become separated into two layers. For instance,
a mixture of 15 cubic centimeters of amyl alcohol, 20 cubic centim-
eters of ordinary alcohol, and 32.9 cubic centimeters of water is
homogeneous above 20 ; but the least lowering of temperature be-
low this, even by one tenth of a degree, causes the division of the
liquid into two nearly equal layers. The author proposes to use
this fact in the construction of an exceedingly delicate minimum
thermometer. Convenient volumes of amyl and ethyl alcohols are
mixed together, brought to the required temperature, and water
gradually added, drop by drop, till a slight turbidity results. The
liquid is then sealed in a tube, being first colored with carmine.
Whenever the temperature falls below that at which it was pre-
pared, the two layers appear, and of diflerent tints. If methyl al-
cohol and ether be thus used, a maximum thermometer may thus be
made.

Berthelot has given a system of classification of acids and bases
founded on the decomposition of their salts by water, as shown by
the thermal changes which result. In the first class are placed
strong acids and bases. These, wdien separately dissolved in water
and mixed in equal equivalents, produce an amount of heat whicli
is nearly constant for all, and which is not increased by a new ad-
dition of water or of the base. Such salts, then, are not decomposed
by water. The second class includes feeble acids. These form salts,
even with strong bases, which are decomposable by water, the de-
composition progressively increasing with the amount of water add-
ed. With some of the bodies of this class, however, the progress of
the decomposition is gradual either up to a certain limit or indefi-
nitely, while with others it is effected totally upon the first addition
of the water. In the first class are placed chlorides, nitrates, and
neutral sulphates of the fixed alkalies; in the second, the borates,
carbonates, cyanides, sulphides, alkali-phenates, acetates, butyrates,

Ivi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIEIC AND

valerianat'CS, as well as the alcoholates. The author thinks these re-
sults are due to the formation of hydrates of the acid and the base
by the water added. In the first class the heat set free by the for-
mation of the hydrates is less, in the second greater, than is evolved
by the union of the acids and bases themselves.

The same chemist has examined thermo-chemically the explosion
of gunpowder, in order to negative the view expressed by Noble and
Abel, that this phenomenon is incapable of exact chemical formula-
tion. He shows most clearly that when powder explodes there are
formed all the bodies which are stable in the conditions of the ex-
periment, principally potassium sulphide, sulphate, and carbonate,
as well as carbon dioxide, monoxide, nitrogen, and steam. The pro-
portions vary with the conditions of the experiments. These sub-
stances, if they remain in contact sufficiently long, suffer reciprocal
action which brings them to a single condition, i. e., that which cor-
responds to the maximum of heat set free. Each of these products
is formed according to a regular law nevertheless, and the chemical
transformations of the powder are expressed in all cases by a simul-
taneous system of very simple equations.

Julius Thomsen has published a memoir on the heat of neutraliza-
tion of chemical substances, in which he gives the following conclu-
sions : the differences observed in the results obtained disappear if
the substances used be mixed in aqueous solution. The bases solu-
ble in water are thermally divided into two groups: First, that of
the hydrates, represented by potassium hydrate ; and, second, that of
the anhydrides, represented by ammonia, the typical heat of neutral-
ization being for the first group for one molecule of normal sulphate
31,300 calories, and for the second group 28,200 calories, at 18. For
the insoluble bases only the apjjarent heat of neutralization can be
measured, and this is the sura of the true neutralization heat and
that of solution of the base. If the former be the same for the bases
of the magnesia series (Mg, Mn, Fe, Ni, Co, Zn, Cu) as for the alkali
earths, the heat of solution of these bodies will be negative, that of
copper, for example, being 12,800 calories.

The radiometer continues to be the subject of extensive experi-
mentation. Bottger, using a Geissler instrument, could not obtain
the slightest rotation with the full moon or with phosphorescent
tubes. A candle flame twenty-four centimeters distant, with an
alum plate interposed, gave a weak rotation ; but with a water cell
no motion was detectible. If the instrument be placed in a room at
15 Centigrade, in presence of a gas flame, there is rotation as usual ;
but if immersed in water at 45, the rotation is reversed. Lippmann
has given a very complete list of the theories which have been ad-
vanced to explain the motion of this instrument, the general conclu-
sion being that the energy effective is heat.

Neeson has experimented at length on the so-called mechanical

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 187G. Ivii

power of light as manifested in the apparatus of Crookes, and comes
to the conclusion that the motions observed are due to heat currents
produced in the residual air.

The University of Pennsylvania has recently obtained from Geiss-
ler one of Crookes' radiometers. It is extraordinarily delicate, the
light of a candle three feet distant causing the vanes to revolve, and
the rotation being continuous in ordinary daylight.

Von Wartha has made a series of experiments on the influence of
pressure on combustion. For pressures greater than that of the at-
mosphere the experiments were made in the caisson of a bridge
crossing the Danube at Buda-Pesth, the manometer there indicating
1.95 atmospheres. Six standard candles were burned for a definite
time in the open air and then in the caisson, being weighed both be-
fore and after each experiment. The result showed the consumption,
as a maximum, to be 17.4 per cent, more combustible in air at the or-
dinary pressure. In a receiver exhausted to 90 mm. a candle burns
with a scarcely visible flame, the cause of which the author believes
to be the fact that, as the pressure diminishes, the temperature of
dissociation constantly increases.

Cailletet has also published a j)aper on the influence exerted by
pressure on combustion. His experiments were made with a hollow
iron cylinder which would stand a pressure of 300 atmospheres, into
which air could be compressed by pumps. The flame to be exam-
ined was placed in this tube, glasses being inserted in the sides
through which it could be seen. A candle flame becomes at first
brighter as the pressure increases, but soon smokes, the combustion
being incomplete. In general, however, the author concludes that
the temperature of combustion increases with the pressure.

Heumann has published in full his memoir on the theory of lumi-
nous flames, in which the results of an extended investigation are
given. He maintains that there are three separate causes which
may destroy the luminosity of gas subtraction of heat, dilution of
the gas, and oxidation of the illuminants. Those hydrocarbon
flames which lose their luminosity by cooling them recover it again
when they are heated. Those which lose it by dilution with air or
with indifferent gases recover it by raising the temperature of tJie
flame. Those flames which lose their brightness by the moderate
introduction of oxygen, which oxidizes the carbon directly, are made
bright again upon diluting the oxygen.

Champion and Pellet have called attention to the resemblances
which exist between the mode of decomposition of explosive bodies
and the phenomena of supersaturation. They mention many re-
spects, for example, in which a supersaturated solution of sodium
sulphate resembles, in its instability and the means by which it
solidifies, the explosive dynamite.

Magnier de la Source has experimented upon the solubility of uric

3*

Iviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

acid, and has discovered that the coefficient of solubility is a func-
tion not of the temperature at which it is determined, but of the
maximum temperature which the mixture may have attained pre-
viously, and of the time which they have been in contact. More-
over, the solubility is also variable, since decomposition takes place.
He concludes (1) that uric acid in solution has a variable solubility
coefficient, which is the higher the more dilute the solution ; (2)
that this increase in solubility is due first to the production of a
more soluble hydrate, and then to the dissociation of this hydrate
into urea and dialuric acid ; and (3) that this dissociation is facili-
tated by heat, especially in presence of potassium hydrate,

Weber has determined anew with great accuracy the specific heat
of carbon, boron, and silicon by means of Bunsen's ice-calorimeter.
If the specific heat of these bodies be taken at a temperature where
they are constant, that of carbon is 0.467, silicon is 0.203, and boron
is 0.500, thus bringing the atomic heats under the law of Dulong and
Petit, as 5.6, 5.7, and 5.5 respectively. Three varieties of carbon
were employed, their specific heat being the same at the temperature
of 225.

Schiiller and Wartha have proposed some modifications in the
ice-calorimeter of Bunsen, with a view of adapting it to more gener-
al use. The freshly fallen snow is replaced by ice, and the measure-
ments are made by weighing the mercury expelled.

Naumann finds in the recent results of Kundt and Warburg upon
the specific heat of mercury vapor a complete confirmation of the
opinion which he, on purely theoretical grounds, expressed eight
years ago, that mercury and cadmium molecules are diatomic.
Moreover, he shows, in accordance with the dynamic theory of
gases, that the heat of the atomic motion is to the heat of the
molecular motion, and to the heat of expansion, as w : 3 : 2, in which
n is the number of atoms in the molecule. The specific heats of
gases, including that of mercury vapor, calculated on this hypothe-
sis, agree well with those experimentally determined by Regnault
and others.

Marig Davy has called attention to the agricultural value of mete-
orological observations. He gives the results of experiments made
on growing wheat, in which the rate of transpiration was compared
with the temperature and the actinometric power, and also gives
statistics to show the connection between meteorology and crops.
He believes that at the close of May or early in June, at which time
the wheat is in flower, it is possible to deduce from purely meteoro-
logical data the value of the future crop.

Gernez has published in full his paper on the evaporation of
superheated liquids. Having already shown that evaporation is
the only normal mode of vaporization of liquids, he now considers
the peculiarities of this mode of producing vapor.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1S7G. Hx

OPTICS.

C.W.Siemens has exhibited at the Roj-al Institution some remaiiv-
able experiments on the action of light on the conductivity of crys-
tallized selenium, mainly the results which had been obtained by
Dr. Werner Siemens, of Berlin. He shows that cast selenium be-
comes more homogeneous and extraordinarily sensitive to light if it
be kept for some time at or above 210 Centigrade. In this condi-
tion it may be used as a photometer, and is capable of giving accu-
rate and constant results. Diffuse daylight doubles the conductivity,
and direct sunlight increases it more than tenfold. A selenium
"eye" was shown which had a selenium disk for the retina, and
two slides for the eyelids. The eye was shown to be sensitive to
white light, and also in different degrees to light of different colors.
By means of an easily arranged electro- magnetic arrangement the
current might be made to open and close the eyelids automatically,
the selenium eye blinking by a flash of light exactly as does the
natural one.

Lommel has given some ingenious and satisfactory demonstrations
of certain optical problems not easily made evident without the
higher mathematics, such, for example, as the angle of minimum de-
viation in prisms, achromatism, theory of the rainbow, etc.

Allard has investigated several questions of practical interest in
light-house illumination, such as the transparency of flames and of
the atmosphere, and the visibility of scintillating lights.

Rutherfurd has published a short account of his new glass circle
for angle measurements. The circle is ten inches in diameter, and
divided to ten minutes of arc. It is read by two micrometer micro-
scopes magnifying seventy-five times. The probable error of a sin-
gle reading is shown to be considerably less than half a second,
while that of the mean of a series of such measurements is very much
less. The author expresses his conviction that upon a fifteen-inch
glass circle, provided with powerful microscopes, greater precision
could be attained in the reading of angles than with the largest
metallic circles now in use.

Kriiss has studied the question of the depth of the images in
optical instruments, and has given the results of the application ol"
his principles to the human eye.

Abneyhas investigated the cojiditions of photographic irradiation
which causes the photographic image of a luminous body in front
of a dark background to appear larger than it is and concludes
that the current theory that it is due to reflection from the back
of the plate can only be true when the incident rays make an
angle with the normal to the surface. This he conceives to be
the fact, the particles of silver bromiodide scattered through the
collodion film acting to reflect the light thus obliquely. The ex-

Ix GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

perimental results given accord well with those calculated on this
theory.

Terquem and Trannin have described a new method for deter-
mining rapidly the index of refraction of a liquid, which, like Wol-
laston's, depends upon the angle of total reflection, but which does
not require a special apparatus. By means of two plane parallel
plates of glass, having a film of air between them, which are im-
mersed in the liquid to be examined, the critical angle is deter-
mined, and so the index.

Hagenbach has called attention to the fact that unannealed or im-
perfectly annealed glass, which is in a state of tension from too rapid
cooling, is very likely to break either from a blow or from sudden
changes of temperature. As this tension renders the glass doubly
refracting, he proposes to examine glass articles with polarized light
in order to detect any imperfection in the annealing.

Gaumet has devised a new telemeter, or distance measurer, which
is small enough to be carried in the pocket, and which gives the dis-
tances it measures to within one fiftieth of their actual value. Even
this may be exceeded by using an observing telescope. It is founded
on doubly reflecting the object from two mirrors placed at 45 from
each other, one of which is movable. By means of a base-line, and
the angle formed by the lines drawn from the distant object to the
extremities of the base-line, the distance may be calculated.

Salet has investigated anew the question of spectra of different
orders. He combats the view of Schuster that nitrogen ceases to
give the characteristic channeled spectrum after being heated with
sodium, and shows, first, that the spectrum in question can be ob-
tained from nitrogen heated in contact with sodium ; second, that
the disappearance of this spectrum in the experiment is due to the
disappearance of the nitrogen itself, it being absorbed by the sodium
under the influence of the electric discharge ; and, third, that the
spectrum described by Schuster is really due to vapors of the alkali-
metal.

Potier has examined mathematically the question of the influence
which the motion of matter exerts upon luminous ether waves.

Salet has examined the spectrum of nitrogen and of the alkali
metals in Geissler tubes. He observed that sodium sealed with ni-
trogen in a tube under a slight pressure did not always cause the
disappearance of the bands in the nitrogen spectrum, but that it
appeared even to absorb the nitrogen and to become black. This
nitride, treated with water, gave the reactions of ammonia. In his
opinion, therefore, the bands in the nitrogen spectrum are not changed
when treated with sodium, unless the nitrogen is actually absorbed
by the sodium, when the spectrum changes, of course, to that of so-
dium vapor, which was the spectrum supposed by Schuster to be that
of nitrogen.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 187G. Ixi

H. Vogel has published additional facts concerning the effect of
certain coloring matters upon the sensitiveness of silver bromide to
different portions of the spectrum. He finds, for example, that a di-
lute solution of methylrosaniline picrate increases powerfully this
sensitiveness for the red rays between B and C. He says (1) that
pure silver bromide is sensitive even to the ultra-red rays ; (2) that
to the substances already enumerated as increasing the sensitiveness
of the bromide for special parts of the spectrum must be added
methyl violet and cyanin, the latter increasing it for the orange rays ;
(3) that it is better to flow the alcoholic solution of the coloring
matter ou the collodion ; and (4) that too strong a solution is to be
avoided.

Vogel has also made an examination of the absorption spectra of
several salts of the iron group of metals, and has drawn the charac-
teristic absorption curves which belong to them, with a view to util-
ize the sj)ectro- analytic method in qualitative analysis. By this
means he has detected permanganate in a layer one and a half cen-
timeters thick of a solution which contained only -^soVo o P^rt.

The same author has given the results of his examination of the
spectra of various coloring matters, with especial reference to their
use for detecting these substances when used for adulterations, es-
jDccially in wines. These substances are very numerous, not less
than 482 having been mentioned for this purpose at the recent
Wine Congress in Colmar. Vogel uses a common pocket spectro-
scope, a few test tubes, and some simple reagents. Upon a horizon-
tal line as the axis of abscissas he erects jDerjoendiculars at the posi-
tions of the Fraunhofer lines, and then, by means of ordinates pro-
portional to the intensity of color at different points, he obtains a
simple intensity curve by which the results may be very readily
compared. Figures of many of these curves are given in the paper,

Sauer has experimented upon the visibility of the ultra-violet rays
of the spectrum. He used for this purpose light emitted by zinc in
the electric arc, which he observed was particularly rich in these
rays. He thinks there would be no great difficulty in using this
method for obtaining a photograi^h of this portion of the spec-
trum.

Lockyer has made some remarkable observations on the spectrum
of calcium at different temperatures and under different conditions.
The blue line ordinarily observed in the calcium spectrum given
with a Bunsen burner he considers a line of calcium itself, the other
lines being those of its chloride, not dissociated. As the dissocia-
tion advances by rise of temperature, the blue line becomes more
brilliant and the chloride spectrum fades. If now the electric arc
be employed, the blue line is intense, and two new lines appear in
the violet which occupy the position of the two H lines in the sun
spectrum. But while in this spectrum tlie blue line is the most in-

Ixii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

tense, the reverse is the case in the solar spectrum. Using, however,
a large induction coil and battery, and then a small coil and battery,
Lockyer found that while in the latter case (the spectra being pho-
tographed) the blue line only was apparent, in the former the violet
lines appeared, with no trace of the blue one. Varying the inten-
sity of the current, a fac-simile of the three lines in the sun spectrum
was obtained. The author queries whether these f^icts do not teach
the dissociation of calcium itself, and suggests solving the problem
by photographing the H lines of stellar spectra.

Delachanal and Mermet have given some results obtained by
means of their siDCCtro-electric tube which show its value in quali-
tative analysis. In the ashes of the sporules of the common puff-
ball {Lycojjerdon pratense), after separation of the silica, lines of so-
dium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, copper, and hydrogen were observed.
A specimen of zinc examined in this way showed the presence of
both indium and gallium. The estimated amount of indium in ten
kilogrammes of the zinc was 0.050 gramme, and of the gallium 0.002
gramme.

Berthelot has re-examined the question of the rotatory power of
styrolene, which he had asserted, but which had been denied by
Yan't Hoflf. He finds that the value of (") =: 3.1 in one speci-
men and 3.4 in another. The difference appears to be due to the
presence of a little inactive styrolene.

Wunder has investigated the absorption spectra given by light
reflected from different varieties of ultramarine, and gives curves
showing the variation of intensitv.

Mach and Merten have studied the effect of pressure upon quartz,
and have shown that the velocity of light in the quartz may be
changed by compression, the optical elasticity being lessened in the
direction of the pressure, but much more in a direction perpendic-
ular to this. Quartz may therefore be looked upon, say the authors,
as an isotropic medium which has been subjected to an enormous
pressure during crystallization, perpendicular to the axis, thus devel-
oping its double refraction.

Bosanquet has contrived a new form of polariscope, w^ith which
he has studied particularly the polarization of the sky. The essen-
tial part of the instrument consists of two quartz wedges, one of
Avhich is right-handed, the other left-handed. The terminal faces
are cut at right angles to the axis, and the inclined common surface
of the wedges makes an angle of about thirty degrees with the di-
rection of the axis, which is also the line of vision. The quartz par-
allelopipedon is mounted in a tube having at the eye end a Nicol
prism. The author claims for it certain advantages over the Savart
polariscope, and gives some of the results he has obtained with it in
studying the polarization of the sky.

Soret and Sarazin have made a series of measurements to ascertain

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. Lxiii

the rotatory power of quartz upon ultra-violet liglit, in which they
used very successfully the new fluorescent eye-piece for the spectro-
scope recently devised by Soret. They succeeded in measuring the
rotation of rays as far as the line N, and found that it increased
from 51.22 at H to 55.88 at L, 59.03 at M, and 64.41 at N. The the-
oretical values calculated from Boltzmann's formula agreed well
with these. Subsequently CrouUebois has stated that he had made
similar measurements, extending as far as the line O.

Nipher has communicated to Nature some ingenious optical exper-
iments, essentially physiological in character. Roll ujd a sheet of pa-
per, look through it, with one eye focused on some object beyond.
On placing the hand by the side of the distant end of the tube, it
will seem as if the hand were perforated and the sides of the tube
transparent. If a drop of ink be placed on the hand, it will appear
in the inside of the tube, but the hand itself will be invisible. This
tube arrangement, used with both eyes, is excellent for viewing com-
plementary colors.

ELECTRICITY.

Sandoz has examined four of the new Jamin permanent magnets
of laminated steel with a view to ascertain whether their force varied
with time whetfier the armature was attached or not, and also wheth-
er sudden rupture diminished the portative force. The magnet em-
ployed weighed 411 grammes, and its armature 69 grammes. Its
maximum lifting power was 9.3 kilogrammes, or nearly twenty-
three times its own weight. He finds that these magnets gain
rather than lose by time, and that whether they are kept armed or
not ; and sudden rupture rather increases their power to receive
charges.

Camacho has described a new form of electro-magnet, in which,
instead of a bar of iron, the core is made up of a number of concen-
tric tubes of iron, around each of which a coil of wire is wound. In
one experiment such a magnet, charged with the same battery, lifted
five times the weight which was raised by a precisely similar magnet
constructed on the old plan. In a subsequent paper Du Moncel has
communicated to the Academy some results he obtained with this
magnet, which are analogous to those made by him in 1862. He
shows that the increased power obtained in these magnets is due to
a superposition of the magnetic effects by the enveloping cores.

Jamin has re-observed and extended the curious fact stated by
Haldat that iron filings, inclosed in a brass tube and compressed,
retain their magnetism permanently. Tubes thus made were shown
the Academy, eight or ten centimeters long and three in diameter,
which attracted iron filings at least as strongly as steel bars of good
quality of the same size. Filings of pure soft iron showed the same
result, as also did iron reduced by liydrogen.

Ixiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

Jamiii has published an extended paper on magnetism, in which
he gives the laws of magnetic distribution.

Duter has studied the distribution of magnetism in circular and
elliptic steel plates, and concludes, 1st, the free magnetism is pro-
portional to the surfaces ; 2d, it is distributed in hyperbolic lines, the
non-transverse axes of which are in the direction of the axes of sym-
metry perpendicular to the neutral line.

Gaugaiu, in a paper on the jDrocesses of magnetization, has stated
that wdien two magnets have their contrary poles jDlaced in contact
with a bar near one of its ends, their action to develop magnetism
temjDorarily at the middle point of the bar is very unequal, while
the permanent magnetism thus produced is stronger at this middle
point when but a single magnet is used. He gives theoretical con-
siderations in explanation of these phenomena.

Gaugain has also studied the influence of the temper of steel upon
its magnetization. As a result of his experiments, he concludes that
those bars which have received the hardest temper are those which
take the strongest magnetization when powerful means are em-
ployed to develop it, but that annealed bars are magnetized more
strongly by means which are less energetic.

Fave has experimented on the action of heat on the magnetism
of steel bars, with special reference to the observation of Jamin that
steel is capable of receiving a considerable magnetism at a tempera-
ture at which it loses entirely all magnetism which it has received
when cold. He finds, 1st, that the magnetism of a bar may be pre-
served at any temperature whatever, if this temperature be main-
tained constant ; 2d, that the diminution of the magnetism, at first
slow, becomes very rapid at the end of a time varying with the tem-
perature of magnetization ; and, 3d, the magnetism which remains
after cooling, increases again upon heating the magnet.

Cazin has sought to establish a relation between the heat pro-
duced by the magnetization and the demagnetization of iron, the
amount of magnetism alternately lost or gained by the core and the
position of the poles, and in this way to get an ajoproximate value
for the magnetic equivalent of heat.

Duchemin has proposed the use of nickel for the protection of
the needles of marine compasses against rust, and he gives the results
of some experiments in this direction, made with his circular com-
pass, which were entirely satisfactory. The deposit of nickel does
not seem to affect appreciably the magnetization.

Deprez has made some experiments on the velocity of magnetiza-
tion and demagnetization of iron, and finds that soft iron, ordinary
iron, malleable cast iron, and chilled steel all required one and a
half thousandths of a second for magnetization, and one four-thou-
sandth for demagnetization. Gray cast iron was magnetized in one
thousandth.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. Ixv

Rowland has published the results of his studies on magnetic dis-
tribution, giving the results of experiments made in 1870-71.

Bleekrode has investigated somewhat exhaustively the question
of the use of ebonite plates in electric induction machines in jDlace
of glass ones. He maintains that even in ordinary machines they
are far preferable, but that in double machines, such as the one de-
vised by him, they are the only kind to be used. Moreover, they
have important theoretical advantages in addition.

Warren de la Rue and Muller have described the method of con-
struction of their new intensity battery, consisting of 3240 cells.
This battery is composed of plates of chloride of silver and of zinc,
excited by a solution of sodium or ammonium chloride a form de-
vised by De la Rue in 1868. The electro-motive force of this com-
bination is to that of the Daniell cell as 1.03 to 1 ; the mean resist-
ance of the entire battery is for each cell 38.5 ohms. It evolves
from acidulated water (1 volume sulj^huric acid and 8 of water), in
a voltameter having a resistance of 11 ohms, 214 cubic centimeters
of mixed gases per minute. The length of the spark in air, given
by one series of 1080 cells, w^as 0.098 millimeter ; with two such
series, 0.629 millimeter ; and with three, 1.623 millimeters ; being
directly as the square of the number of the elements used. In a
subsequent paper the luminous effects produced by this spark in
vacuum tubes are described, the striking distance being six decim-
eters.

Von Waltenhofen has described a new^ form of magneto-electric
machine recently constructed by Siemens and Halske. It consists
of steel magnets for producing the field, the peculiarity of which
consists in their form and arrangement, which is like two V's,

thus w, in the space between wdiich a Siemens-Alteneck armature

revolves. The machine is easily turned by hand, and w^ith one rota-
tion a second gave the electro-motive force of three Bunsen cells,
and with three rotations one of eight. It heated to wdiiteness 30 cm.
of platinum wire ^ mm. thick, worked an induction coil, decomposed
water, etc. Tisley has also devised an improvement in the break-
piece of the Siemens armature, by which the effects are increased.

Tresca has given the results of some experiments with the Gramme
machine, made with great care to determine the economic value
of this machine for the production of light. Two machines were
employed, one of about six times the powder of the other. The
number of candle-powers obtained from the first was 12,950 ; the
consumption of power, 7.68 horse-powers, or 1686 candles to the
horse-power. From the second and smaller machine the light was
equal to 2114 candles ; and the power consumed was equal to 2.81
horse-powers, being 752 candles to the horse-power, thus showing
the greater economy of the larger machine. The cost of the illu-

Ixvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

mination by the larger machine was only one hundredth of that of
the same light when obtained with oil, and only one fiftieth of that
obtained with coal gas.

Some experiments have been made in Paris upon dividing the
electric light, under the direction of M. Baron. A single Gramme
machine has fed in this way not less than eighteen lamps, each of
which gave a light equal to 100 gas jets.

Mouton has proposed a simplified method of determining the
internal resistance of a battery without complicated apparatus and
the sacrifice of much time. It gives the resistance in terms of that
of a certain shunt wire introduced into the circuit.

Plants has continued his experiments with secondary batteries,
and now shows that the spark taken from the surface of water gives
phenomena analogous to those observed in polar auroras.

Bourbouze has proposed to use natural conductors, such as water-
courses, and even the earth, as a medium through which to obtain
electric signals. Experiments which he has made in Paris seem to
have been quite successful.

Girouard has described a new form of regulator for the electric
light, the essential point of which is the use of a balanced arm
separate from the carbon holder, and acting as a relay, through the
magnet of which the whole current passes. The current of a small
battery contained in its base is sent in one direction or the other,
according as the electro-magnet is weak or strong, and this deter-
mines the motion of the clock-work by which the carbon points are
separated or brought together. This balanced regulator has been
used in the United States for many years by Farmer.

Holtz has described a new form of tube for electrical illumination,
which is an improvement upon the one devised by Gaugain, in
Avliich a series of funnels directs the discharge. In the new tube
there are one, two, or three diaphragms, in each of wdiich are two
funnel tubes facing opposite ways, those facing each way being on
a right line parallel to the axis of the tube. The effect is the same
as in Gaugain's tube, but the single tube is much more convenient.

Oberbeck has given a new method of measuring the electric con-
ductivity of liquids. It consists in measuring the maximum strik-
ing distance between two balls of a given induction spark, and then
introducing as a lateral circuit the liquid to be measured, and again
measuring the spark. By making a series of observations and plot-
ting them, taking the lengths of the liquid columns as abscissas
and the spark length as ordinates, a curve of conductivities is very
readily obtained.

Rowland has called attention to an error in Kohlrausch's deter-
mination of the absolute value of the Siemens mercury unit of
electrical resistance, which he thinks will account for the two per
cent, difference from the results of the British Association commit-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 187G. Ixvii

tee. This error consists principally in the omission from his equa-
tions of the coefficient of self-induction. Stoletow, in a subsequent
note, while admitting that the error exists, and that its correction
will tend to approximate the results, clearly shows that the error is
entirely too small to extinguish the two per cent.

Wilson has contrived an ingenious method of attaching a mirror
to a galvanometer needle so that the angular motion of the beam of
light reflected from it shall be the same as that of the needle. For
this purpose the light passes vertically upward to the mirror, which
is fastened directly below tlie needle, and at an angle of 45 to its
plane of oscillation.

Edlund has observed a fact of great importance to his theory of
electricity, i. e., the fiict that the resistance of a conductor varies
with the motion of this conductor, being lessened when the con-
ductor and the current move in the same direction, and increased
when the directions of the motion are opposite. In Edlund's theory,
in which electricity is only the flow of ether through bodies, the
strength of the current is measured by the mass of the ether which
flows throuo-h the cross-section of the conductor in a unit of time.

Fuclis has proposed to use the electrometer as an instrument for
measuring current strength, polarization, and resistance. In his
experiments he employed a gold-leaf electrometer in communication
with a dry pile. By combining this with the compensation method
of Poggendorft', the results were satisfoctory.

Fleming has made additional experiments to prove the position
assumed in his paper read at the British Association and objected
to by Rowland, i. e., that the electro-motive force developed by the
motion of an electrolvte throuu'h a strong magnetic field eflects tlie
decomposition of this electrolyte. He now shows that the facility
of polarization of the plates is unaffected by the aeration of the
liquid, and that the cause of this i3olarization can be removed from
the plates mechanically.

Becquerel has published an important paper on the determination
of the chemical force exerted by two solutions upon each other by
means of tlie electro-motive force developed. The method is sug-
gestive, especially in its physiological relations, since the strength
and direction of the electro-motive forces in living beings are the
foundations upon which rest not only all the phenomena of nutrition,
but also those of life itself.

Dufct has experimented upon the electric conductivity of pyrite.
He finds that this constant is very variable with different speci-
mens, owing, undoubtedly, to want of homogeneity in them. Wliilc
crystals from Traversella had a resistance varvino- from 750 to 4000
times that of mercury, those from Deville, more homogeneous, had
a resistance only seventy-five times that of this metal. The results
obtained show also that in a given crystal the resistance is constant

Ixviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

and independent of the direction, duration, or strength of the cur-
rent.

Oberbeck has experimentally determined the resistance which the
air offers to an induction spark. He shows that it is a function of
the strength of the currents, and that hence its numerical value may
be calculated in the same way as that of solid or liquid conductors.

Bauermann communicates a method of showing the conductivity
of the various forms of carbon, due to Dr. Von Kobell, of Munich,
A fragment of the carbon to be tested is lield in a pair of zinc tongs
(a simple strip bent on itself) and immersed in copper sulphate solu-
tion. The proportion of coj^per deposited on the carbon indicates
its conducting power.

Lippman notes the curious experiment of putting a mass of water
contained in a glass vessel in communication with the earth, and
then bringing near it an excited rod of resin ; oxygen is evolved at
the wire. On removing it the hydrogen is disengaged. But before
removing the rod, where was the hydrogen ? The author says it is
neither in combination nor solution, but is retained upon the surface
of the water.

Buff has made an extended investigation into the changes of
temperature which are produced when an electric current passes
from one metal to another. The evolution of heat is proportional to
the quantity of electricity passing in a unit of time multiplied by
the electro-motive force of the battery.

Lovering has proposed an ingenious method of determining the
velocity of electricity by means of two electro-magnetic forks vibrat-
ing at right angles and giving Lissajous' curves. If known resist-
ances be introduced in the circuit of one of the forks, the change in
phase will indicate the retardation of the current and give the data
for the calculation.

Deprez has contrived a new form of electro-magnetic register for
recording velocities. With the apparatus figured, which is simple
in its construction, 600 complete signals can be recorded in a
second.

Bichat has published an interesting memoir upon induction, in
wliich he shows that as a current of high electro-motive force may
be developed from one of low by means of the so-called induction
coil, so, by passing a current of high tension from a Holtz machine
through the outer coil, a current is generated in the inner coil capa-
ble of producing magnetic effects and of decomj^osing water, pre-
cisely as does the direct current from a battery. He also suggests
an important modification in the Foucault interrujDter, by which the
intermittent current is interrupted more uniformlj' .

"Weber has communicated an extended paper on the theory of the
galvanometer, in which he discusses tlie whole subject mathemat-
ically.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. Ixix

Bunsen has given some results obtained in his laboratory by
Hillebrand and Norton on the electrolytic preparation of the metals
contained in the mineral cerite. About forty grammes of the elements
cerium, lanthanum, and didymium were obtained in this way.

Kerr has been led from theoretical considerations to the discovery
of a new relation between electricity and light. He has proved
that dielectrified media are doubly refractive during the charge.
The media employed were glass, resin, and quartz. The results prove
that dielectrified resin acts as if extended along the lines of force, while
dielectrified glass and quartz act upon the transmitted light as if
they were compressed along the lines of force.

Colladon has published an extended research on the efiect of
lightning on trees, in which he gives the results of investigations on
poplars, oaks, elms, pears, firs, grape-vines, chestnuts, and walnuts.
The conductivity of poplar, he observes, is such as to make it of serv-
ice as a lightning-rod, and he recommends connecting the base of
these and of other tall trees with permanently moist earth if possi-
ble a watercourse by means of a metallic rod.

Schaack has given in a recent memoir his views upon the con-
struction of lightning-arresters at present used for telegrajDh lines.
He proposes to replace these by a simple trough of water, made of
metal and connected to earth, through which the wire (a fine spiral
of silk-wound German-silver wire covered with a thin coating of
rubber) which connects the register with the line passes. The earth
connection from the register is made to the metal of this trough. A
discharge of lightning would melt the small wire and escape to
earth, leaving the instruments uninjured.

Ixx GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

CHEMISTRY.

By GEORGE F. BARKER,

Professor of Physics in the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,

In General Chemistry^ Cayley has commumcated to the Chemical
Section of the British Association a paper on the analytical figures
which are called trees in mathematics, and on their application to
the theory of chemical compounds. His purpose was to determine
the theoretical number of hydrocarbons of the formula CH2^^2t
and his results agree with those of experiment so far as the latter
have been developed. He shows, for example, that 799 isomers are
possible, having the formula C^jH^g.

Berthelot has continued his studies in thermo-chemistiy, and has
published two papers. In the first of these he treats of the thermal
changes connected "U'ith the oxides of nitrogen ; in the second, of
the thermic formation of barium dioxide and hydrogen dioxide.

Muir has given his views of the jDresent system of chemical nota-
tion and its complete significance, arguing that its symbols actually
do mean far more than they are usually made to in ordinary usage,
and hence that the newer dynamical views now arising may find it
best to retain them.

Janovsky has published a paper on equivalence, in which he
maintains with good reason that the only rational basis for this
property of atoms, as well as for the correlative one of combining
weight, is to be found in the dynamical theory of work.

During the month of April a national chemical society, with the
title of the American Chemical Society, M\as organized in New York.
The objects of this body are the encouragement and advancement of
chemistry in all its branches, in furtherance of which monthly meet-
ings will be held in New York, and an annual meeting at some
selectetl place. The society starts with a membership of 133, under
the presidency of Professor J. W. Draper.

Mills has published an important paper on " The First Principles
of Chemistry," in which he places in a strong light the dynamic
theory of chemistry in distinction from the statical theory now gen-
erally received.

Lodge has given an interesting discussion on nodes and loops in
connection with chemical formulas, showing that the number of
each may be easil}^ calculated in any given case.

Ostwald has experimented to determine the efiiect of mass in the
chemical action of water upon other bodies. He used a solution of

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 187G. ]xxi

bismuth chloride, to which various quantities of water were added,
the amount being in all cases more than enough to f)roduce the
precipitate. These precipitates were analyzed, and the ratios of the
chlorine and bismuth determined. From them a curve was con-
structed, which is hyperbolic along two thirds, and straight for the
other third of its length. Hence the author believes Bertholiet's law
is true, the action being proportional to the mass, the curve being
due to external influences,

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.

Pierre and Puchot have obtained a crystallized hydrate of hydro-
chloric acid by cooling a saturated solution of the gas in water to
21 or 22 Centigrade, a current of this gas being maintained
through it. As soon as crystallization begins, the temperature rises
to 18, and remains there so long as crystals form. Synthetical
calculation as well as analysis fixed the formula of the crystals as
HC1(H20)2. The authors hence recommend a mixture of hydrochlo-
ric acicl and snow as a freezing mixture.

Berthelot has studied the thermic conditions attending the for-
mation of ozone. He finds that in the production of one molecule
of ozone from oxygen there is an absorption of 29,6 calories.
Being therefore a body formed with the absorption of heat, its activ-
ity chemically is accounted for ; it is a magazine of energy stored up
under the influence of electricity.

Frankland has published a paper on water analysis, in which he
examines the value of the albuminoid-ammonia process, and con-
cludes tliat it is " entirely useless in the examination of waters for
sanitary purposes." He claims, however, for the combustion process,
that it is the only one which gives trustworthy information concern-
ing the organic matter present, tlie only one which can determine the
carbon, and the only one which shows the ratio of nitrogen and
carbon.

Gladstone and Tribe have shown that water may be decomposed
by the joint action of aluminum and aluminum iodide, bromide, or
chloride. They suggest as probable that the reaction takes place in
two stages. In the first the aluminum of the iodide is oxidized,
and in the second it is regenerated, setting free hydrogen,

Precht and Kraut have pul)lished the results of experiments made
to test the statement of Debray that the tension of aqueous vapor
which is given by a salt containing crystal-water in a vacuum is de-
pendent solely upon the temperature, and hence that this tension
may be made use of to ascertain whether all the molecules of this
water of crystallization are held with equal force. Their conclusion
is that while in individual cases this may be done, it can only be
considered reliable when all the collateral circumstances are taken
into the account.

Ixxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

Weber has discovered a new compound of sulphur and oxygen,
which has the formula S^O^, and which he calls sulphur sesquioxide
or dithionic oxide. It is prepared by acting on sulphuric oxide,
containing a trace of sulphuric acid, with sulphur. A dark blue
compound separates in liquid drops, falls to the bottom, and solidi-
fies in crystalline crusts. Below 15 Centigrade it is sufiiciently per-
manent to be weighed. Selenium forms a similar compound, con-
taining both oxygen and sulphur.

Behrend has described a new method of preparing sulphuryl
chloride, which consists in heating sulphuric chlorhydrin in sealed
tubes to 170-180 for ten to fourteen hours. The yield is satis-
factory.

Scheurer-Kestner has examined the gas which is produced by the
combustion of pyrite, in reply to Bode. The sulphurous oxide va-
ries from 6 to 9 per cent., the oxygen from 6 to 9 per cent,, and the
nitrogen from 84 to 85.5 per cent.

Olivier has given an elaborate paper descriptive of the sodium
nitrate regions of South America, illustrated with an excellent map
of the region.

Friedburg has proposed the use of fuming nitric acid for remov-
ing the last traces of impurity from carbon disulphide. The two
are distilled together ; the distillate is washed and rectified.

Nilson has made an elaborate investigation of the arsenic sul-
phides, by which he has thrown much light on the modes of forma-
tion and the reactions of these bodies.

Champion and Pellet have investigated the conditions of the de-
composition of nitrogen iodide and chloride. Since both chlorine
and bromine disjDlace iodine from its combinations, it is natural to
infer that these bodies will decompose nitrogen iodide. It is de-
composed with explosion when placed at the end of a tube in which
chlorine is being evolved, or in the vicinity of a rod moistened with
bromine. The temperature at which the iodide detonates is 48 Cen-
tigrade. Notwithstanding Abel's opinion of its inconstant compo-
sition, the authors believe it to be uniform when made by placing one
gramme iodine in 10 c. c. ammonia, agitating, allowing to stand ten
minutes, filtering off, washing twice with 10 c. c. ammonia, and then
with water. It is placed on gelatin paper, and covered with gold-
beater's skin gummed down while still moist. On drying, the skin
contracts and holds it fast. As to the chloride, the authors attrib-
ute its explosion in contact with turpentine to the attraction which
this oil has for chlorine, and the ease with which it gives up its
hydrogen. This view is strengthened by the fact that, when satu-
rated with chlorine, the turpentine does not explode the chloride.

Acworth has examined the action of nitric acid upon copper,
mercury, silver, etc., with a view to determine the gaseous products.
He finds (a) that copper acted on by cold dilute nitric acid evolves

INDUSTKIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 187G. Ixxiii

a gas containing ninety to ninety-five per cent, nitrogen dioxide ; (b)
the same action in presence of a strong solution of copper nitrate
evolves a gas containing eighty-five per cent, nitrogen monoxide ; {c)
potassic nitrate has no influence, but ammonium nitrate causes the
evolution of nitrogen and nitrogen monoxide, with some dioxide ;
(d) mercury, zinc, and iron, in presence of ammonium nitrate, give
rise to the evolution of nearly pure nitrogen ; (e) silver alone with
nitric acid gives chiefly nitrogen dioxide and nitrogen. With am-
monium nitrate the gas evolved is chiefly nitrogen.

Storer has called attention to the almost universal occurrence of
minute quantities of ammonia in the ordinary chemicals of com-
merce, the sulphuric acid examined aftbrding from 0.07 to O.IG of a
millic'ramme in five cubic centimeters.

Meusel has proposed to account for the occurrence of nitrites in
spring waters, not as is usually the case by supposing the oxidation
of ammonia therein, but by supposing the reduction of the nitrates
in the water through the agency of bacteria. He shows (1) that
spring waters which contained bacteria and nitrates, but no ammo-
nia or nitrites, showed the nitrous acid reaction on standing four
daj-s ; (2) that the production of nitrites in this way is stopped by
antiseptics ; (3) that aqueduct water containing nitrates produces no
nitrites, even in presence of bacteria, unless a carbohydrate be pres-
ent ; (4) that distilled water containing both glucose and nitrates
can not be made to generate nitrites if bacteria be absent ; and (5)
that decomposing albuminates reduce nitrates to nitrites.

Spirgatis has given some facts which appear to prove the exist-
ence of arsenic in antique bronzes. Four bronzes were analyzed, two
of them earlier than the Christian era, the other two of the fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries. Of the earlier ones one contained 0.12 and
the other 3.52 per cent, of arsenic ; of the later the quantities were
0.96 and 0.32 per cent, respectively.

Gautier has given an improved method of quantitative testing for
arsenic in cases of poisoning. The organic matter is destroyed by
alternate treatment with strong nitric and strong sulphuric acids, the
sulphide precipitated as usual, converted into oxide, and placed in a
modified form of Marsh apparatus, by which the whole is collected
in a tube and weighed.

Jones has made a somewhat extensive research on stibine, with a
view to determine its exact composition. Taking the fact, discov-
ered in the progress of the work, that stibine passed over sulphur is
decomposed, yielding antimony sulphide and hydrogen sulphide, as
the basis of a quantitative method, he proves this stibine to be SbHj.

Suilliot finds that borax is not the excellent antiseptic that has
been claimed, though it is equal in this regard to salt. But he gives
the results of some experiments with calcium borate, which seem to
show that this salt has antiseptic powers of considerable value. He

4

Ixxiv GENEKAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

believes that by the action of the meat the salt is decomposed, yield-
ing a simple borate, which preserves from decomposition, while the
boric acid thus set free preserves it from mould.

Troost and Hautefeuille have observed that when boron chloride
is passed through a heated porcelain tube, silicon chloride and alu-
minum chloride are formed. Even pure silica and pure alumina are
thus attacked. Silicon chloride does not attack porcelain, but is de-
composed by alumina. Both chlorides attack zirconia and titanic
oxide readily.

Hornberger has attempted to introduce zirconia into organic com-
pounds, and has studied this earth at length. He concludes, first,
that the similarity with silicon which is so striking in inorganic
chemistry does not hold in organic ; since, second, zirconia can not
unite with alcohol radicals to form a sort of ether in Mdiicli it plays
the part of an acid ; and, third, zirconia plays a decidedly positive
part in organic compounds, this element replacing readily only acid
hydrogen.

Moride has given some statistics of the production of charcoal
from algae on the French coast, which has risen to an important in-
dustry ; 100,000 kilogrammes of the fresh plants yield 20,000 kilo-
grammes of the dried, and 5000 kilogrammes of charcoal. This,
when incinerated, yields from 3500 to 4000 kilogrammes of saline
matter, containing 20 per cent, of potassium salts. The charcoal it-
self is an excellent disinfectant and decolorizer, and is also used as
a fertilizer.

Hartley has examined the liquid which is contained in the cavi-
ties of some varieties of rock-crystal, and comes to the conclusion
that it is liquid carbon dioxide. Comparing his results with Brews-
ter's, he adds to the list several other minerals. The proof of the fact
stated he finds in the fact that the critical point for the inclosed
liquid is between 30.75 and 31 Centigrade, while that of liquid
carbon dioxide, as determined with great care by Andrews, is 30.92.

Wright has examined several more meteorites for the purpose of
determining their gaseous constituents, and finds essentially the
same composition for these gases as that given by the Iowa meteor-
ite before published. The ^^resent results, however, were obtained
at temperatures varying from 350 Centigrade to a full red heat for
the stony, and from 500 to a bright red heat for the iron meteorites.
His previous generalization, that stony meteorites differ from iron
ones in containing more carbon dioxide and less hydrogen and car-
bon monoxide, and in evolving their gaseous constituents at a much
lower temperature, seems fully confirmed.

In a later paper Wright continues his studies upon the gases con-
tained in meteorites, and gives the results of his examination of the
Kold Bokkeveld meteorite, which, though stony, contains consider-
able carbon and some bituminous matters. It yielded 25.23 volumes

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1S7G. Ixxv

of gas, of which 93.11 per cent, was carbon dioxide, the remainder
being carbon monoxide, marsh gas, hydrogen, and nitrogen, the two
latter in minute quantity. It also yielded ten per cent, of water, in
which chlorine and sulphurous oxide were detected. The question
of the manner of occurrence of the gases within the meteorite is also
discussed.

Remsen and Southworth have made the curious observation that
carbon monoxide is not oxidized by ozone. The two were passed
into a flask, and then through lime-water ; but not a trace of tur-
bidity was i^erceptible in the latter, even when the entire apparatus
was placed in full sunlight. The authors discuss the bearing of this
fact upon the question of free attractions in carbon monoxide.

Zoller has made a series of experiments ui)on the antiseptic and
disinfecting properties of carbon disulphide, from which it aj^pears
that this substance is quite remarkable in this direction. Since it
appears that mould and putreftiction can not take place in air con-
taining a comparatively small quantity of this vapor, the author es-
pecially recommends such an atmosphere for preserving meat and
other food during the process of transportation to the consumer.

Houzeau has given a new method for the volumetric determination
of free carbonic acid, which consists in absorbing the gas in a titered
solution of sodium hydrate, precipitating the carbonate in an insolu-
ble form by a neutral solution of barium chloride, and then titering
back with a graduated solution of sulj^huric acid. To prevent the
formation of sodium bicarbonate a small c[uantity of zinc oxide is
dissolved in the soda solution before use.

Bong has described a new class of prussiates, obtained from the
yellow prussiates in much the same way as the nitroprussiates, but
using chloric acid in place of nitric. The potassium salt is black
when solid. It dissolves readily in water, giving to it an intense vio-
let color, but is almost insoluble in alcohol. With metallic salts, even
with those of zinc, it gives dull green precipitates, more or less dark
a fact which distinguishes the new salt from the ferricyanide.

Godeffroy has redetermined with care the atomic weights of rubid-
ium and caesium. The metals were separated from each other and
from potassium by crystallization as alums, the last traces of rubid-
ium being removed from the caesium salt by precipitation of the lat-
ter by means of antimonous chloride. As a mean of four closely ac-
cordant determinations, the atomic weight of ca-sium obtained was
132.627, and that of rubidium 84.525.

The ammonia-soda process of Solvay has, according to German ac-
counts, been lately so much improved as to threaten the abandon-
ment of the standard method in Germany,

Guyard has examined the residue left in the retort after the manu-
facture of sodium. Tlie mixture put in consisted of crude salt of
soda, 56.5; coal, 18.5 ; coke, 10.5; chalk, 14.5. The residue, after ex-

Ixxvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

posure to the air, consisted of 35 per cent, of soluble matter, 9 of wa-
ter, 22 of carbon, 18 of carbonate and oxysuliDhide of calcium, ashes
and iron oxide, 15.4. The soluble portion contained 11.9 caustic
soda, 44.30 carbonate, 24.10 sulphate, 11.70 suli^hite, 0.45 sulphide,
7.05 chloride of sodium, 0.2 silica, 0.3 of alumina, and traces of lime
and potash.

Terrell has analyzed the black residue obtained by calcining po-
tassium ferrocyanide, and finds it to consist of metallic iron, 32.05 ;
magnetic oxide of iron, 27.56 ; uncombined carbon, 27,49 ; combined
carbon, 1.17; carbon as cyanogen, 0.24 ; potassium, 0.81 ; nitrogen,
0.29 ; oxygen, 10.50.

Griinzweig and Hoffmann have conclusively sustained their state-
ment of the crystalline character of ultramarine, against Buchner,
who had maintained that the crystals observed under the micro-
scope were those of quartz. They now bring forward the testi-
mony of additional experts, who have seen and examined the crys-
tals, and of Vogelsang, who has determined them to belong to the
cubic system.

Gladstone has observed that the chemical activity of aluminum is
greatly augmented by contact with a more negative metal, this sub-
stance decomposing water readily at 100 Centigrade when either
copper or platinum was electrically deposited uj)on it. In connec-
tion with Tribe, Gladstone has also made some experiments upon
the activity of pure zinc, as compared wdth zinc ui)on the surface of
Avhich copper has been deposited. From this it appears that even
arsenical zinc, when covered with copper, may be boiled with water,
and evolve large quantities of hydrogen without giving in this gas
a trace of arsenic. The foil alone, treated with dilute sulphuric
acid, gave abundance of arsenous hydride.

Gladstone and Tribe have also extended their researches to the
decomposition of aluminum in presence of its haloid comiDOunds,
and have observed that alcohol is readily decomposed on heating
with this metal and its iodide, evolving hydrogen and leaving alu-
minic ethylate in the retort. This latter body is a yellowish-white
solid, which is capable of distillation.

Naumann shows that potassium-alum solutions, when heated to
100 Centigrade, are partially decomjjosed, losing a portion of their
sulphuric acid.

Troost and Hautefeuille have described a manganese boride, and
have studied elaborately the part which manganese j^lays in the
metallurgy of iron, paying especial attention to the thermo-chem-
ical reactions involved.

Parsons has made a series of experiments at the "Woolwich Foun-
dry on a manganese bronze, which, when forged, had a strength of
twenty-nine tons to the square inch, an elastic limit of twelve tons,
and an elongation of nearly thirty-two per cent.

INDUSTEIAL PKOGRESS DURING THE YEAR 187G. Ixxvii

Laspeyres has investigated the chemical constitution of the natu-
ral and artificial oxides of manganese, called brauusteins, with a
view to determine the equivalence of the metal manganese.

Mermet has proposed a very delicate test for the so-called sulpho-
carbonates, now coming into extended use among grape-culturists as
remedies for the phylloxera. If to an extremely dilute solution of
a salt of nickel in ammonia a few drops of the solution to be tested
be added, a characteristic currant-red color is developed. Tliis test
is extremely delicate, showing co o o o ^^' even go o o o of sulpho-carbon-
ate in a solution. Braun had proposed some time before the sulpho-
carbonate as a very delicate test for the presence of nickel.

Lecoq de Boisbaudran, the discoverer of the new element gallium,
has given laboratory methods for the extraction of this metal from
the blendes in whicli it occurs. A list of blendes is given, together
with their relative values as sources of gallium. The best one is that
called the black blende of Bensberg.

He has subsequently communicated additional facts concerning
his new metal, gallium. He has prejDared the metal itself electro-
lytically, and a piece of it weighing 3.4 milligrammes was presented
to the Academy by M. Wurtz. The siDCctrum consists of only the
two lines already mentioned, of wave lengths 417 and 403.2 respect-
ively. He has succeeded finally in obtaining a grain and a half
of the metal in the pure state, and has determined that it melts at
85.1 Fahr., so that it liquefies when held in the hand. Its specific
gravity is 4.7, water being 1.

Guyard has thrown considerable light on the formation of aniline
black by the discovery that the salts of vanadium have a marked in-
fluence in producing it. This he attributes to the facility with
which this metal passes from one state of oxidation to another.

Bedson has made a series of experiments on compounds formed
by the union of ether with certain chlorides of the metals. He has
succeeded in forming such compounds with vanadium oxychloride
and with titanium tetrachloride. Titanium trichlorhydrin is also
formed.

Aronheim has suggested the use of molybdenum pentachloride as
a most eificient chlorine carrier. While endeavoring to find a sol-
vent for this substance, the fact appeared that even benzene when
heated, after dissolving this body, evolved torrents of hydrochloric-
acid gas. Further experiment proved its great sui^eriority to iodine
in this respect, because (1) it is more energetic and rapid, (2) carries
the chlorinating more uniformly from one stage to the next, and (3)
can be removed, after the reaction is finislied, much more easily.

Terrell has communicated to the French Chemical Society the
analysis of the magnetic platinuui of Nischne-Tagilsk. The mag-
netic metals present are iron (8.18 per cent.) and nickel (0.75 per
cent.). There is also given in the analysis 3.13 jjer cent, chrome iron.

Ixxviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

De Souza lias made a series of experiments to ascertain whether
amalgams are actually chemical compoimcls. He maintained both
silver and gold amalgams at the temperature of boiling sulphur until
the weight remained constant, and then found that the former con-
tained its constituents in quantities required by the formula Agj3Hg,
and the latter, AUgHg, thus confirming the theory of chemical union.

E. Dumas has written upon the touch-stone, giving an extended
historical sketch of the subject, and furnishing an analysis of a stone
w^hich has been used from very ancient times in the Paris assay
office. It proved to be a piece of fossil wood, of an unknown genus
and species, however, to which, on microscopic data, Renault assigns
the generic name Ohrussaxi/lon, meaning wood used for assaying gold.

Sainte-Claire Deville and Debray have published some data con-
cerning the density of inwe platinum and jDure iridium prepared
with great care, and also that of several alloys of these metals. They
find that the mean density of platinum, estimated from ingots weigh-
ing from 200 to 250 grammes, is 21.5. Iridium in the ingot has a
density of 23.239 ; after breaking under the rolls, of 22,421. An al-
loy of 10 per cent, iridium has a density of 21.615 ; of 15, 21.618 ; of
33.33,21.874; of 95, 22.384.

Scheurer-Kestner has communicated additional facts upon the
corrosion of platinum stills which are used for the concentration of
sulphuric acid. He finds (1) that the loss is not mechanical but
chemical, the metal being contained in the acid in solution ; (2) that
when the acid is free from nitrous compounds, it dissolves about
one gramme of platinum for every ton of sulphuric acid concen-
trated to 93-94 per cent., but six to seven grammes per ton when
the concentration is pushed to 98 and above, rising even to nine
grammes when the acid marks 99|- per cent. ; (3) that the loss is
even more considerable if nitrous products are present in the acid,

Boussingault has published a memoir upon the silicification of
l^latiuum and some other metals, showing that they do not unite
with carbon at a red heat, that carbon reduces silicon at a high tem-
perature, that platinum heated to whiteness in a silicious carbon
crucible is silicified, and that the silicon is held by the carbonous
oxide.

E. von Meyer has studied at length the apparent action of chem-
ical attractions called into play during the slow oxidation of hydro-
gen and carbonous oxide by means of platinum.

Deville and Debray have observed that cyanide of potassium
mixed with spongy platinum, and heated to 500 or 600 Centigrade
in presence of aqueous vapor, evolves liydrogen, and forms potassio-
platinum cyanide. The same is true of a concentrated solution of
the cyanide. The authors show that this result flows necessarily
from the thermal exchanges involved in the reaction.

Zarawkowitch proposes the use of glycerin for reducing platinum

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 187G. Lxxix

solutions in order to form platinum black ; 15 c, c. of glycerin of
specific gravity 25 to 27 Baume, and 10 c. c. potassium hydrate of
density 1.08, are gently heated, and 3 to 5 c. c. of platinic chloride
is added. The platinum black falls, and is collected and washed.

Meyer has described a lecture experiment for illustrating that va-
porization without fusion is due to pressure. Two glass tubes contain-
ing iodine are prepared and sealed, one vacuous, the other at nearly
the ordinary pressure. If now both tubes be w^armed, the iodine in
the second tube melts, and may be made to run down the w^alls of
the tube ; in the vacuous tube the iodine only volatilizes.

Landauer has proposed a very simple form of blow-pipe, which
consists simply of two bottles tubulated at bottom, and connected by
these tubulures through a rubber tube. The u^jper opening of one
of these is closed by a cork, through which a tube passes going to
the jet. This bottle being empty, the other bottle is filled with wa-
ter and i^laced at a convenient height. The hydrostatic pressure
forces the air out of the first and lower bottle through the jet.

Frerichs has devised a new form of balance, in which the beam is
made of aluminum alloyed with five j^er cent, of silver. The beam
is very short, and yet the balance is not at all deficient in delicacy.
The use of riders is disjDcnsed with, the small weights being de-
termined by the torsion of a wire ingeniously arranged.

Arzberger projDoses the use of an air-damping apparatus for chem-
ical balances, to diminish their oscillations. To the stirrup a gilded
brass plate is hung, which moves in a short cylinder, a trifle larger
in diameter, supported on the case.

Drechsel has described a new form of wash-bottle, differing from
the older forms by having the tubes ground into the neck of the
flask, the delivery tube being enlarged for this purpose, while up
through the top of this enlarged stopper comes the inlet tube. For
washing with corrosive substances it may be useful.

Mohr has communicated a paper on the nature and origin of me-
teorites, in which he discusses at length the chemical and astronom-
ical questions involved.

Houzeau has proposed a method for the volumetric determination
of carbon dioxide, depending on the absorption of the gas by a grad-
uated solution of alkali, precipitation by barium chloride, and esti-
mation of the free alkali.

Duprc has ^^roposed a modification in Dumas' method for the
determination of nitrogen in organic analysis, which consists in a
carbonic-gas ajDparatus by which the air and the nitrogen may be
removed, and a peculiarly constructed cylinder for receiving and
measuring the gas.

Johnson has observed the formation of nitrites in the potash bulbs
when bodies containing nitrogen are burned, and as these absorb
oxygen and increase in weight, they may cause an error.

Ixxx GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

Precht and Kraut have investigated at length the question of the
dissociation of salts which contain water, and have obtained some
valuable results.

Langley has proi^osed, in determining carbon in iron and steel, to
burn the carbon without first sej^arating it from the copper, as is the
usual method.

A new test-paper, j)repared by Waller, is made by soaking strips
of unsized paper in a solution of corallin, and is said to be exceed-
ingly sensitive to the presence of alkalies, turning a beautiful red
color, while acids turn it yellow. Waller proposes it as an alkaline
reagent in place of litmus.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.

In Organic Chemistry^ Fittig's hypothesis that cumene was isopro-
pylbenzene has been established by Jacobsen, who has succeeded in
effecting its synthesis by acting with sodium on isojDropyl iodide,
resting upon Avhich was an equivalent quantity of brombenzene dis-
solved in six times its volume of ether. The action proceeded slow-
ly, and after four days was interrupted. On fractionating, a hydro-
carbon boiling near 150 was obtained, which had all the f)roper-
ties of cumene.

Pinner has re-examined more carefully the new hydrocarbon which
he announced to have the comj^osition C3H2, and finds that this is
wrong, owing to an error in the formula of dichlorallylene from
which it came. Its true formula is CgH^, and it is hence either ally-
lene itself or an isomer of it.

Butlerow has shown that the olefines, like the terpenes, are capa-
ble of direct union with water to form alcohols, isobutylene yielding
trimethylcarbinol quite readily in this way.

De la Harpe and Van Dorp have examined the hydrocarbon fluo-
rene discovered by Berthelot. They find that when fluorene is dis-
tilled over moderately heated lead oxide a semi-solid reddish product
is obtained, which is a condensation product containing double the
number of carbon atoms in its molecule.

Osipoff has succeeded in preparing amyl alcohols from the direct
union of amylene and sulphuric acid. The two forms of the alcohol
obtained are respectively dimethyl-ethylcarbinol and methyl-isopro-
pylcarbinol, the quantities varying according to the concentration
of the acid used.

Dr. Van Hamel Roos has examined carefully the condition under
which glycerin crj^stallizes, having had fifty-six pounds of crystals
to work with. The crystals are monoclinic. The only requisite in
their production is the freedom of the glycerin from water. Crystals
are the best test of purity, and also the best means of purification,

Renard has studied the action of electrolytic oxygen on glycerin,
and finds that there is produced a glyceric aldehyde, which reduces

INDUSTRIAL PROGEESS DURING THE YEAR 187G. Ixxxi

ammonio-silver nitrate, giving a brilliant mirror and also the copper
test.

Girard has proposed to mix with dynamites, in order to prevent
their congelation in cold weather a result which seriously interferes
with their exj^losive power about ten per cent, of methyl nitrate.
The volatility of this body he finds to be no inconvenience in practice.

Michaelis has succeeded in introducing arsenic into the aromatic
series by acting upon arsenous chloride with mercury-diphenyl. A
heavy, colorless, strongly refracting liquid was obtained, which was
phenyl-arsenous chloride.

Sadtler has discovered the interesting fact that tartronic acid is a
product of the direct oxidation of glycerine by nitric acid.

Kilmenko has studied the action of bromine on lactic acid, and
finds that it yields ethyl bromide and a crystallized substance neutral
in its reaction, and containing bromine, apparently formed by the di-
rect union of bromal and lactide.

Kolbe has published a valuable paper entitled " Chemical Hints
for the Practical Use of Salicylic Acid," of the synthesis of which
substance he is the discoverer, and which has proved so efficacious
as an antiseptic.

Bremer and Van't Hoff have examined the succinic acid obtained
from active tartaric acid with a view to determine its optical action.
According to the latter's view, no substance can rotate a polarized
ray which does not contain one or more asymmetrical carbon atoms.
Since succinic acid contains no such atom, it should not rotate such
a ray ; and the authors show that it does not.

Kupferberg has succeeded in eflecting the retransformation of
paraoxybenzoic acid into salicylic by heating its sodium salt to 290^
Centigrade. Over one half of the theoretical yield was obtained.

Brunner and Brandenburg have succeeded in detecting succinic
acid in the juice of unripe grapes. They were led to examine for it
by the fact that nascent hydrogen, acting on ethyl oxalate, produced
tartaric acid and glycolic acid. The same reduction process, the au-
thors believe, therefore goes on in the plant.

Barth has investigated a product of the action of hydrochloric acid
on resorcin observed by him some time ago. He finds it to be solu-
ble in alkalies, and precipitable by acids in bright brown flocks,
which on drying show a magnificent green metallic lustre, and by
transmitted light are scarlet. It is an ether of resorcin,

Bindschedler and Busch have described the synthetic process by
which the new red color, eosin, is produced artificially. As is well
known, eosin is derived from fluorescein, which is a product of the
action of phthalic acid on resorcin. The phthalic acid is readily
prepared by the oxidation of naphthalene. The resorcin is produced
by fusing the sodium salt of benzol-disulphonic acid with soda.
Heating the resorcin and phthalic acid together gives fluorescein ;

4*

Ixxxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

and treating this with bromine gives tetrabromfluorescein, of which
eosin is the potassium salt. The price of eosin is 100 francs a kilo-
gramme.

Weselsky has shown that jDhloroglucin is a very delicate test for
nitrous acid. Very dihite solutions of phloroglucin and toluidine
(or aniline) nitrate become dark orange on the addition of a few
drops of a dilute solution of potassium nitrite, and a cinnabar red
powder is thrown down.

Jacquemin has examined the methods proposed for the detec-
tion of fuchsin in wine, founded on its tinctorial power. As is well
known, this substance is extensively used for this j)urpose. Pyroxy-
lin and wool may be dyed directly in the wine, but to prove the
presence of fuchsin finally, the ammonia process is necessary.

Liebermann and Fischer have further examined chrysophanic acid,
the active principle of rhubarb. They find it to stand to emodin,
its associate, precisely as alizarin stands to f)urpurin, only both the
former are homologous with the latter, being derivatives of methyl-
anthracene, Chrysophanic acid is dioxymethylanthraquiuone.

Graebe and Caro have made an extended investigation of rosolic
acid, restricting this name to tlie substance obtained by the action
of nitrous acid on rosaniline and subsequent treatment with w^ater.
They find that it is capable of giving a series of tetra-substitution
products, and is analogous, therefore, with the phthaleins of resorcin
and orcin described by Baeyer. Reduction yields both hydrorosolic
acid and leucorosolic acid, and from these come tetrabromleucorosol-
ic acid and hydrocyantetrabromrosolic acid.

Hlasiwetz and Habermann have examined the chemical characters
of gentisin and of gentisinic acid, into which and phloroglucin the
former is decomposed. This acid by heat yields carbon dioxide and
hydroquinone.

Butlerow has made some experiments with the milky juice of
CynancJium acutum, Linn. He finds in it a volatile alkaloid and a
white gum-resin, probably a phenol, to which he gives the name
cynanchol.

Williamson has described some metallic derivatives of coumarin,
containing the metals sodium, potassium, barium, silver, and lead.

Wartha has investigated more minutely the coloring matter of
litmus, and has shown that the commercial article always contains
indigo. He gives directions for preparing the coloring matter pure.

Tiemann and Haarmann have described a method for the accu-
rate determination of vanillin in vanilla, and have shown that the
price of the commercial varieties is not always in accord with their
content in vanillin.

Latour and Cazeneuve have separated from mahogany an astrin-
gent substance containing carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, which is
crystalline, and identical with catcchin.

INDUSTRIAL PKOGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. Ixxxiii

Prescott has given the results of his determinations of the solu-
bilities of the alkaloids, in the crystalline, amorphous, and nascent
conditions, in ether, chloroform, amyl alcohol, and benzine respect-
ively, these solvents having been washed witli water before use.

Hesse has communicated a preliminary note, in which he says he
has found in a rare cusco bark an alkaloid which appears to agree
with the cusconine of Leverkohu, and to be closely allied to the ari-
cine of Howard.

Glenard has investigated the alkaloid of i23ecacuanha, emetine.
It was obtained in small hemispherical warty crystalline masses,
which, on purification, gave milk-white crystals. From the analysis
of the alkaloid itself and of its chlorhydrate, the formula C^JI^^'NO^
is assigned to it.

Schmidt has investigated the action of hydrogen suli^hide on the
alkaloids, and has produced comjDounds of it with strychnine and
brucine.

Hess has examined minutely the character of opianine, an alka-
loid, derived from Egyptian opium, and concludes that it is nothing
but pure narcotine.

Mallet has published a theoretical paper on tlie rational formula
of urea, uric acid, and their derivatives.

Hill has communicated from the organic laboratory of Harvard
College a paper on the ethers of uric acid.

Ritthausen has further examined a nitrogenous substance found
by him in the juice of the vetch (Vicia sativa), and, finding it to be
new, gives to it the name vicin. It has ^^I'operties analogous to
those of asparagin.

Struve has confirmed the opinion of Lechartier and Bellamy that
fruits in the absence of oxygen ferment, evolving carbonic gas and
producing alcohol, though there can not be discerned any yeast
cells in them by the microscope.

Paper and cardboard made from peat were recently presented at
a meeting of the Berlin Polytechnic Society, and a factory for its
manufacture is about to be erected in Prussia. The paper resem-
bles in quality that made from wood or straw.

In Physiological Chemistry^ Schutzenberger has continued his valu-
able researches on albumin and the albuminates.

Gautier and his pupil Scolosuboff have made an extended exam-
ination on arsenic in the tissues, and have shown that it principally
localizes itself in the nervous tissues. They also describe an im-
proved method of separating it from organic matters.

Commaille has given a means of separating cholesterin from the
fatty matters with which it is generally accompanied, and which are
often mistaken for it, by taking advantage of the property which
cholesterin has of resisting the action of concentrated alkalies, even
when boiling.

Ixxxiv GENEKAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIEIC AND

MINEKALOGY.

By EDWAED S. DANA, Ph.D.,

Yalb College, New Haven.

PUBLICATIONS, RESEARCHES, ETC.

Several important works on Mineralogy have been published dur-
ing the year past. First among these stands Rammelsberg's " Hand-
book of Mineral Chemistry." This is a most valuable contribution
to the science, both on account of the high position which the au-
thor holds in the department, and also because it is the first com-
plete w^ork in which the chemical composition of minerals has been
discussed with sole reference to the j^rinciples of the New Chemistry.
It thus marks an era in the science, since hitherto the new formulas,
if given at all, have generally been made subordinate to those of the
old system.

The " Physical Crystallography " of Professor Groth is also an im-
portant w^ork, since it gives a full and systematic, and yet very intel-
ligible discussion of the oj)tical characters of crystals, and the means
employed in their investigation. Other new works are the Crystal-
lographies of Klein and of Sadebeck ; the former discussing the
methods of calculation, and the latter the natural history of crystals,
their method of growth, and so on. The new (oth) Appendix by
Domeyko to his "Mineralogy" may also be mentioned ; the new min-
erals described in it are enumerated in the list which follows.

Two mineralogical societies have recently been inaugurated in
England, one of which is called the " li k Z," after Professor Miller's
classical crystallographic symbols. Moreover, it has been announced
that a new journal, to be devoted exclusively to Mineralogy, is soon
to be commenced in Germany ; the design is to make it decidedly
cosmopolitan in its nature.

In the department of Physical Mineralogy imj^ortant researches
have been jDublished by Hankel, Groth, and others. Hankel has
continued his investigations of the pyro-electrical properties of min-
erals, and has shown that these belong, not, as once supposed, to a
few hemihedral minerals alone, as tourmaline, but to all species in a
more or less decided degree. Moreover, he has shown that these
characters are determined, analogously to the optical properties, by
the symmetry of the crystalline form ; for instance, in a tetragonal
or hexagonal crystal the same kind of electricity is developed in
all lateral directions, that is, upon all prismatic planes, but the oj)po-
site kind at the extremities of the vertical axis. Groth has deter-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 187G. Ixxxv

mined the coefficient of elasticity of rods of rock-salt by a series of
delicate acoustical experiments. These rods were cut in different
directions from the crystal of salt, and the main result arrived at is
the proof that the elasticity has difterent values in different direc-
tions, but the same value in all directions crystallographically iden-
tical,

Baumhauer has continued his researches upon the figures produced
upon the surfaces of crystals of lepidolite, tourmaline, and other min-
erals by means of various modes of etching. The same method of
investigation has proved, in his hands, that crystals of mimetite and
pyromorphite are hemihedrally developed in the same way as those
of apatite, though it is not apparent in their external forms.

The accurate measurements of crystals of analcite by Schrauf have
led him to the conclusion that it, like leucite, must be transferred to
the list of tetragonal crystals (instead of isometric). It is claimed,
however, by Hirschwald that both species are truly isometric, though
showing the phenomena of " polysymmetry." Tschermak has also
shown that the common mica, muscovite, is monoclinic, not ortho-
rhombic.

The crystals of chondrodite from Brewster, N, Y,, have been
shown by an American crystallographer to embrace the same three
types of forms that characterize the volcanic mineral humite, of
Vesuvius ; moreover, the oj^tical characters of the second and third
types show them to be monoclinic^ though they do not agree between
themselves. Des Cloizeaux has supplemented these observations by
a like examination of the Vesuvian mineral (humite), and has thus
shown that the three types must be considered three distinct species ;
which he proposes to call respectively humite^ chondrodite^ and clino-
humite.

A number of new and strange cases of the association in parallel
position of crystals of two distinct species have been described ;
thus, j)yroxene on hornblende, humite on chrysolite, etc. The most
remarkable case is that of quartz on calcite, an interesting form of
which has been figured from " Specimen Mountain," in the Yellow-
stone National Park,

A related though quite different subject is the inclosure of one
crystal by another, as the strange envelojiment of orthoclase by tour-
maline described by E, II, AVilliams {Amer. Journal of Science^ Feb.,
1876), The i^resence of liquid carbon dioxide in minerals has been
confirmed by Hartley, and some new facts in regard to it published.
His studies have led him to suggest the idea that diamonds may
have been formed by the action of reducing agents on very highly
compressed carbon dioxide. Dr. Isaac Lea has continued his study
of the inclusions, both liquid and solid, by some gems, as sapphire,
spinel, etc.

The new localities of American minerals, spoken of in the last vol-

Ixxxvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

ume of the Record^ have been further developed during the year, and
yielded many fine specimens. Of new occurrences of some interest
may be mentioned the staurolite crystals of Fannin Co., Georgia ;
tlie pyrrhotite of Elizabethtown, Ontario ; the quartz and rutile of
White Plains, North Carolina, the former very fine in color and trans-
parency ; the columbite from Standish, Maine ; sphene from Bridge-
water Station, Pennsylvania, and so on.

As the tellurium minerals of this country have exerted a good deal
of interest of late years, it is worth noting that some tellurium com-
pounds (hessite, altaite) have been discovered by Domeyko in Chili.

NEW MINERAL SPECIES.
The energy of mineralogists during the past year seems to have
been especially directed to the discovery of new species, for the num-
ber of new names introduced into the vocabulary of the science is
very large. It is probable, however, that some of the newly made
species may not have a very long existence. The following is the
list of species announced as new :

Achrematite. A mol3^bdo-arsenate of lead, of a yellow color, and
indistinct crystalline structure. The locality is Guanacerg, Chihua-
hua, Mexico. Described by Professor J. W. Mallet.

Aerinite. Essentially a hydrous silicate of iron and aluminum,
characterized by its intense azure-blue color. The structure is mass-
ive and earthy. It forms the paste which binds together fragments
of quartz, chrysolite, feldspar, and augite, and has probably itself
arisen from the decomposition of other silicates. Locality, Spain.

Calcozincite. A doubtful mineral containing zinc, calcium, water,
and carbonic acid. Massive ; color, orange-red. Sterling Hill, N. J.

Ouprocalcite. A basic carbonate of copper and calcium, some-
what allied to malachite, but having an intense vermilion-red color.
Occurs in small massive fragments in carbonate of calcium. From
the mines of Canza, in Peru.

GlinoJiumite. The third type of humite. (See above.)

Daiibreellte. Proto- sulphide of chromium, occurring as a coating
of triolite nodules in the meteoric irons of Northern Mexico. De-
scribed by Professor J. Lawrence Smith.

Dmihreite. An oxychloride of bismuth, from the Constancia Mine,
in Bolivia. Amorphous, structure somewhat fil^rous ; the color yel-
low and yellowish gray. Specific gravity 6.5, and hardness 2.5
(Domeyko). Both this and the preceding species named for ]\I.
Daubree, of Paris.

Euclilorite. A silicate of iron and magnesium. Occurs in coarse
scales, with a light olive-green color. Distinctive characters, want-
ing. Chester, Mass.

FriedeUte. A hydrous manganese silicate, allied to hydrotephroite.
Occurs in hexagonal plates and in granular masses ; color, rose-red.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. Ixxxvii

Adervielle, Hautes-Pyren6es. Named by M. Bertmnd in honor of
M. Friedel.

Gastaldite.A. member of the amphibole group of minerals, but
in composition essentially a silicate of aluminum. Found in chloritic
slate in the valley of Aosta ; occurs in prismatic crystals ; color, dark-
blue. Named by Sr. Strilver in honor of Sr. Gastaldi.

Hermannolite. A mineral very near if not identical with colum-
bite, from the old locality at Haddam, Conn. Supposed to differ in
chemical composition.

Huantajayite. A chloride of sodium and silver, allied to halite
and cerargyrite. Crystallizes in cubes of a white color. From the
mine of San Simon, Cerro de Huantajaya, Chili.

Ilydrotitanite. A mineral which has been produced by the altera-
tion of crystals of perofskite; all the lime and some of the iron
having been removed, and water been taken up. The crystals have
retained their original form, but the color has become grayish white.
Locality, Magnet Cove, Arkansas. Described by Dr. Koenig, of Phil-
adelphia.

IJdeite. A hydrous sulphate of iron ; occurs as a yellow efflores-
cence on the graphite of Mugrau, Bohemia.

Keatingine. A variety of fowlerite, from Franklin, N. J.

Kronhite. A double sulphate of copper and sodium, of a brilliant
blue color; and occurring in crystalline masses having a prismatic
structure. It feels moist to the touch, and upon prolonged exposure
to the air it becomes greenish, and partly loses its transjDarency.
From the mines of Calama, in Bolivia.

Leviglianite. A ferriferous variety of guadalcazarite, from Levi-
gliani, Italy.

Malinoicshite. A variety of tetrahedrite, containing considerable
silver and lead. From the mine of Car pa, Peru.

MelanoiMogite. Occurs in minute cubes, having a light brownish
color, which are implanted on calcite and celestite from Sicily. The
mineral contains silica, sulphuric oxide, and water, though the ex-
act composition is yet doubtful. The hardness is nearly that of quartz.
Its most peculiar character, to which it owes its name, is that it turns
black on being heated.

Microschorlite and Microvermiculite are names given l^y Herold to
microscopic crystals, of uncertain nature, observed in the kaolin of
Thuringia.

Mottramite. A hydrous vanadate of copper and lead, occurring as
a black, velvety incrustation on sandstone. At JMottram St. An-
drew's, Cheshire, England. Described by Professor Roscoe.

Paranl'erite. A name given by Boricky to a special group of the
minerals which are embraced under the general term of aiiTcerite;
that is, carbonates of calcium, magnesium, and iron, in varying pro-
portions. From Bohemia.

Ixxxviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

Pelhamine. A variety of serpentine of uncertain character. Pei-
ham, Mass.

PhilUinte. A hydrous sulphate of copper and iron. Occurs in
small masses of a deep-blue color in a clay. Province of Santiago,
Chili.

Pilinite. A hydrous silicate of aluminum and calcium ; allied to
the zeolites. Found in fine, white, flexible needles, having a silky
lustre, in the granite of Striegau, Silesia.

Psittacinite. A hydrous vanadate of lead and copper, nearly allied
to mottramite. (See above.) Occurs in thin, crypto-crystalline coat-
ings of a green color. Silver Star District, Montana. Described by
Dr. Genth.

Pyroconite. Identical with pachnolite. Greenland.

Itoscoelite.A. vanadate of aluminum and potassium, described by
Professor Roscoe, and also by Dr. Genth, with difierent results. Oc-
curs in scales grouped in stellate or fan-shaped groups; the color
greenish gray. Found in small seams in a gold-mine at Granite
Creek, El Dorado County, California. Named by the discoverer. Dr.
James Blake, for Professor Roscoe.

Schravjite. A new fossil resin, of a hyacinth-red color ; from Bu-
kowina.

Siderazot. Nitride of iron ; found at the volcano of Etna.

Vanuxemite. Supposed to be a hydrous silicate of aluminum and
zinc. From Sterling Hill, NT. J.

Wertliemamte. A subsulphate of aluminum, difi'ering from alumi-
nite in containing less water. Found near the city of Chachapoyas,
Peru.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. Ixxxi::

GEOLOGY.

By T. STEHRY hunt, LL.D., F.E.S.,

Professor of Geology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston.

The Geological explorations wliicli, under the authority of the
United States government, have been going on for the last few years
in the western part of our territory, have reached a point where it
becomes possible to generalize the observations.

GEOLOGY OF THE FORTIETH PARALLEL.

Clarence King has given us, in anticipation of his published vol-
ume, an important contribution to the history of the Paleozoic series
as displayed along a belt of about one hundred miles in breadth,
following the 40th and 41st parallels of latitude from the 104th to
the 120th meridian, or from the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains
to the confines of California. By a careful study of the outcrops and
of their organic remains, he and his assistants have been able to
make out the succession, and to correlate the various divisions with
the New York series of rocks. The Paleozoic strata of the eastern
half of the continent, generally estimated at 40,000 feet in Pennsyl-
vania, arc diminished to about one tenth of that thickness on the
Mississippi ; and in the eastern part of the Rocky Mountains have a
total thickness of not more than from 900 to 1200 feet, including at
the base Cambrian, and at the summit Carboniferous strata ; the whole
forming apparently one conformable sequence, which rests in dis-
cordance upon crystalline rocks of Eozoic age. This Paleozoic series
rapidly thickens westward to a volume of not less than 32,000 feet
in Utah ; and many divisions not recognized in the eastern part of
the region under consideration are developed with great force and
persistence in Utah and Nevada. Near Battle Mountain, however
(longitude 117 25'), the Paleozoic series is interrupted by a barrier
of Eozoic rocks. The Rocky Mountain region was in Paleozoic time
a shallow sea, with islands of Eozoic rock, while, beyond, the ocean
deepened over a great basin to the western shore.

THE WAHSATCH SECTION.

In the Wahsatch range a single section is seen 30,000 feet in thick-
ness, including Lower Cambrian, and extending through Silurian,
Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian, which latter is overlaid by
Trias; the whole succession being without any observable strati-
graphical break. The base of this great conformable series consists

xc GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

of quartzites, conglomerates, and slates ; attaining in the Wahsatch
12,000 feet in thickness, and, so far as known, destitute of fossils,
with the exception of about seventy-five feet of impure limestones
and shales at the top, which contain a ftiuna designated as Potsdam.
In Middle Nevada, however, this thin fossiliferous layer is expanded'
to at least 3000 feet of dark-colored limestones, carrying throughout
a Lower Cambrian fauna ; while in the Rocky Mountains, to the ex-
treme east, these strata thin out, and never exceed 100 feet.

THE UTE LIMESTONE.

Immediately overlying these Cambrian shales is what is named the

Ute limestone which, from 1000 feet to the southward, attains 2000

feet in the Wahsatch ; while in Western Nevada, where the calcareous

strata of the Potsdam are greatly thickened, we have 4000 or 5000

feet of limestone. In the Wahsatch the middle part alone of this

limestone has yielded fossils, which are of Quebec (that is, of Levis

or Tremadoc) age, while the great calcareous mass farther west has

more than one half its volume of so-called Primordial or Potsdam

age, and a portion of Levis ; a large part contains forms of Niagara,

followed by Lower Helderberg, the precise limits of these not being

yet defined.

THE WAHSATCH LIMESTONE.

Succeeding this is the Wahsatch limestone, having a thickness of
7000 to 8000 feet, and containing faunas of Devonian (Upper Helder-
berg and Chemung) age. This is separated from the Ute limestone
by the Ogden quartzite, a green or white sandstone sometimes
schistose and at other times conglomerate which in dificrent local-
ities varies from IGOO to 700 feet in thickness, and in some parts is
wanting, or represented only by silicious impurities in the limestone.
It is regarded as the representative of the Schoharie and Cauda-galli
grits of New York. The base of the Wahsatch limestone presents in
some localities an intermingling of Lower with Upper Helderberg
forms making as yet somewhat uncertain the horizon between
Silurian and Devonian. Black slates, which in one locality overlie
the Chemung limestone, are supposed to be equivalent to the Genesee
group, above which are beds holding a Waverley or Upper Devonian
fauna. Still higher in the Wahsatch limestones occur Lower Car-
boniferous, followed by true Coal-measure forms. This vast body of
limestone above the Ogden quartzite thus contains from 1000 to 1400
feet of Devonian, from 1000 to 1200 of sub-Carboniferous and Waver-
ley, and from 4000 to 4500 of true Carboniferous.

THE WEBER QUARTZITE.

To this succeeds the Weber quartzite, which in the Wahsatch has
a thickness of 6000 feet, increasing to 9000 or 10,000 feet in the
Oquirrh, and probably to even a greater volume in Western Nevada.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. xci

With the exception of some red sandstones at the base, it is chiefly
a quartzite ; though in parts becoming a coarse sandstone, occasion-
ally conglomerate. Though as yet without discovered fossils, it is
shown to belono; to the Carboniferous from the fact that it is con-
formably overlaid by 2000 or 2500 feet of shales, sandstones, and
chert-beds, with arenaceous limestones, holding throughout Coal-
measure forms, and represented in some parts of the distribution by
a continuous body of limestone. In the marine limestones of the
Wahsatch division there are found, in Middle Nevada, some plant-
bearing earthy coal-beds. We have thus a series of at least 16,000
feet of sediments belonging to the true Coal-measures ; following
which are a few hundred feet of argillaceous, sandy, and calcareous
rocks, the fauna of which appears to offer a transition to the Permian.
The Permian strata themselves are wanting to the west of the Wah-
satch. It is, according to King, a question Avhether the Eozoic bar-
rier which, in Western Nevada, was the limit to the Paleozoic basin,
was continental in its character ; if so, it would appear, from the
Carboniferous strata in the Blue Mountains of Oregon and the Bass
range in California, that it included deep westward bays in which
Paleozoic sediments were deposited.

THE BLACK HILLS.

The late observations of Jenney have given us further illustrations
of the geological succession in the Black Hills of Dakota. The
Eozoic strata of this region, which doubtless once formed an island
in the Paleozoic sea, are described as consisting of gneisses, and
micaceous, hornblendic, and chloritic schists, with interbedded and
intrusive granites, overlaid in apparent unconformity by a series of
argiliites and quartzitcs. Both of these series are much disturbed
and folded, and include auriferous quartz veins. Resting uncon-
formably upon these are 250 feet of sandstones, which at the base
are conglomerate, including fragments of the older rocks and of their
auriferous veins ; and higher up soft sandstones and shales, with
fucoids. Above this are 300 or 400 feet of massive Carboniferous
limestone, sei^arated from the underlying fucoidal beds by a few feet
of calcareous sandstone, holding the same fauna as the limestone.
To this succeeds over 400 feet of red sandstones, limestones, and
marls, with gypsum, regarded as Triassic, overlaid by Jurassic strata
with an abundant fliuna, and not exceeding 500 feet in thickness ; to
which succeed the Cretaceous and Tertiary strata of the region.
The whole section, up to the summit of the Cretaceous, presents no
evidence of want of conformity, and offers not more than 700 feet as
the representative of the Paleozoic period. The strata below the
Carboniferous are l)y him regarded as Cambrian, and called Pots-
dam.

xcii GENERAL SUMMAKY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

THE UINTA MOUNTAINS.
The lately published researches of Powell on the Colorado give
us the details of the geological succession in the Uinta Mountains.
The sedimentary groups of what he has called the Plateau Province
rest upon a series of Eozoic rocks, to which he has given the name of
the Red Creek quartzite, consisting of quartzites, interstratified with
hornblendic, chloritic, and micaceous schists, in appressed folds.
The thickness of these crystalline schists is provisionally put down
at 10,000 feet. Resting unconformably upon these rocks, and hold-
ing at its base fragments derived from them, is the Uinta group of
sandstones, quartzites, and shales, measuring 12,500 feet in thick-
ness, and provisionally regarded by Powell as Devonian. This had
suffered great erosion previous to the deposition of the Carbonifer-
ous series, and is divided in ascending order into about 400 feet of
sandstones, known as the Lodore division, followed by a mass of
2000 feet, chiefly of limestone ; above which are the Lower and Up-
per Aubrey groups, each 1000 feet in thickness, and both consisting
of limestones, with some interstratified sandstones and clierty layers,
making thus a total of 4400 feet of rocks of Carboniferous age, rest-
ing sometimes on the crystalline schists, and sometimes on the eroded
Uinta sandstone. In the Grand Canon of the Colorado, however,
the Carboniferous rests in part upon crystalline rocks, which Powell
regards, like the Red Creek group, as Eozoic (and which consist
of hornblendic and micaceous schists, with beds and dikes of
granite), and in part upon what he calls the Grand Canon group
of sediments. These consist of about 10,000 feet of sandstones,
shales, and limestones, with imperfectly preserved fossils, probably
Cambrian, down to the base. Between this group and the Carbon-
iferous are about 800 feet of sandstones, shales, and limestones, des-
ignated as the Tonto group. These are found to rest upon the
eroded basset edges of the lower sandstones ; and being followed
conformably by the Carboniferous, were by Powell assigned to the
latter period, though, from the presence in it of Cruziana, it has been
referred to a lower horizon. In some parts the Tonto group rests di-
rectly upon the crystalline schists.

PALEOZOIC FOSSILS.

The series above the Tonto group, according to White, includes
the Lower Carboniferous, Carboniferous, and Permian; while the
Grand Canon strata have yielded as yet but few fossils, among which
have been identified only Lingulella and Obolella. In parts of Utah,
Nevada, and Arizona he has found trilobites of the genera Olenellus,
Conocoryphe, and Agnostus, showing a low Cambrian horizon. The
characteristic Crustacea of the Levis limestone are met with in sev-
eral localities, and in one place the Phyllograptus of the so-called

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 187G. xciii

Quebec group. Trenton forms have been found in New Mexico
and parts of Arizona and Nevada, associated in the latter region
with the characteristic graptolites of the Utica. It would thus ap-
pear that the faunas characteristic of all the principal paleozoic di-
visions of the East arc already recognized in different parts of this
great Western basin. Large deposits of gypsum, with strong brines,
are found in Colorado near the base of the Carboniferous series
a fact which recalls similar deposits at the same horizon in various
parts of Eastern North America.

MESOZOIC OF THE WEST.
Powell has, moreover, given us a section of the Mesozoic and Ceno-
zoic rocks. Instead of the conformable succession observed by King,
as well as by Hayden, Comstock, Bradley, and more recently by Jen-
ney, for the whole series of Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks, it has been
seen that in the Colorado section we have a stratigraphical break at
the base of the Tonto group. Another occurs at the summit of the
Carboniferous, upon the eroded edges of which is a conglomerate
forminc: the base of the Mesozoic. The lower Mesozoic here consists
of 5200 feet of sandstones and limestones, often chcxty, with gypsum
at many horizons; the whole series, divided by Powell into four
parts, is regarded as the equivalent of the Jurassic, perhaps including
at its base a representative of the Triassic.

COAL -BEARING SERIES.

Overlying conformably these gypsiferous and calcareous sandstones
are the Cretaceous and Tertiary coal-bearing strata, consisting chiefly
of sandstones, carbonaceous shales, and beds of coal or lignite. Of
these he refers 6100 feet, including, in ascending order, the Henry's
Fork, Sulphur Creek, Salt Wells, and Point of Rocks divisions, to the
Cretaceous. Upon the plicated and eroded surface of the latter rests
the Bitter Creek group of 3000 feet of sandstones, with some lime-
stone, much gypsum, carbonaceous shales, and numerous lignite beds,
followed by 800 feet of the similar strata of the Lower Green River
division, upon the eroded surface of which rests a mass of sandstone
overlaid by the calcareous beds and lignites of the Upper Green
River division, 300 feet in all. This forms the summit of the great
lignitic coal-bearing series, of which, as we have seen, 6100 feet are
by Powell referred to the Cretaceous, and 4100 to the Tertiary, mak-
ing a total thickness of 10,200 feet.

Conformably above this comes the Bridger group of 3000 feet of
sandstones, chiefly glauconitic, with limestones, marls, and flints, sep-
arated by a stratigraphical break from 1800 feet of somewhat sim-
ilar rocks, called the Brown's Park group ; while over the disturl^cd
and eroded surface of this spreads, the highest of all, the Bishop's
Mountain conglomerate of 300 feet, making a thickness of Mesozoic

xciv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

and Cenozoic rocks of not less than 19,500 feet, marked by four
stratigraphical breaks. If to this we add 16,960 feet for the Car-
boniferous and Uinta groups, and 10,000 for the sandstones of the
Grand Canon, we shall have a total thickness of 40,460 feet from the
base of the Paleozoic series to the summit of the Tertiary in this

region.

WESTERN EOZOIC ROCKS.

The study of the geology of this great western half of the Amer-
ican Paleozoic basin shows, as Gilbert remarks, that its rocks were
deposited upon a subsiding Paleozoic continent, over which we can
trace the advancing shore-line of the Paleozoic sea, which at length
covered all but some isolated and more elevated areas. The same
state of things obtained to the eastward also, where there is no
warrant whatever for the fomiliar notion, based on a singular mis-
conception, of a continent growing around a Laurentian nucleus.
The Paleozoic strata in this western region are every where clearly
distinguished by their uncrystallinc character from the crystalline
Eozoic rocks. In one case only, in New Mexico, quartzose schists,
holding hornblende and andalusite, are said to occur interstratified
with uncrystallinc strata canning Paleozoic fossils. The fact, how-
ever, that these strata are in parts vertical, and are traversed by
faults, and brought in contact with gneiss and crystalline schists of
admitted Eozoic age, suggests caution in fixing the horizon of these
supposed Paleozoic crystalline schists. Different observers have re-
ferred portions of these crystalline rocks to the Laurentian and the
Montalban series; but careful studies are yet wanting to establish
their true relations.

METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS.

A great part of the deposits of the precious metals in this western
region are in veins in the Eozoic rocks, but it is well known that
they occur also in the Cambrian and the Carboniferous rocks; while
silver ores are found impregnating rocks of Cretaceous age, showing
that the transportation of the precious metals has been going on up
to a comparatively late period.

ERUPTIVE ROCKS.

Eruptive rocks, as is well known, are found penetrating and over-
lying the strata even of later tertiary age in the West. According
to Richthofeu, there was a natural and constant order in their ex-
travasation, the acidic rocks trachytes and rhyolites being al-
ways older, and the basic rocks basalts and dolerites newer, pen-
etrating and overlying the former. This would seem to be an in-
stance of hasty and imperfect generalization. The writer has long
since shown that some of tlie eruptive dolerites of Canada are of
pre-Paleozoic age ; and the observations of Le Conte and of James

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. xcv

Blake in the West {Record^ 1874, Ixxi.) have made known the exist-
ence of repeated intercahitions, by successive outflows, of trachytic
and doleritic rocks. Marvine has since pointed out another instance
of the kind in Nevada, where two or more beds of dark-colored
olivenitic basalt, with interposed sandstones, are capped by a great
mass of pinkish trachyte or rhyolite holding sanidinc and quartz,
and including pebbles of the underlying basalt.

CRYSTALLINE ROCKS OF MICHIGAN.

The crystalline schists of the northern iDcninsula of Michigan have
been again discussed by Brooks, who, after the Canada Survey, has
referred them to the Huronian period. He calls further attention to
the existence at the summit of the series of a group of granitic rocks,
with hornblendic and micaceous schists holding staurolite and gar-
net, the whole being, according to him, aj^parently younger and dif-
ferent in character from any of the known Huronian rocks. The
writer had already described these rocks in 1871, and then referred
them to the White Mountain or Montalban series, of wdiich they have
both the lithological characters and the geognostical relations.

THE KEWEENIAN SERIES.

The series of sandstones and trappean rocks which carry the
native copper of Lake Superior has been by Irving studied in Wis-
consin, where is found a westward extension of the Lake Superior
synclinal of these rocks, and where they have an apparent thickness
of more than 20,000 feet. They are there as clearly distinct from the
underlying Huronian series as from the overlying horizontal sand-
stones of Lake Superior, which are, according to Irving, traced west-
ward beneath the Lower Paleozoic sandstones of the Mississippi Val-
ley, of which they are apparently inferior members. Brooks now
concludes that the granitoid and micaceous formation just noticed,
which he places at the summit of the Huronian, is unconformably
overlaid by the copper-bearing formation, which he proposes to
recognize as a distinct series under the name of Keweenawian. The
wTiter had, however, already in 1873 named it the Keweenaw series ;
and if an adjective is desired, Keweenian will be more eujDhonious
than the word proposed by Brooks. The evidence, then, is to the
effect that the succession in this region is: 1. Laurentian; 2. Hu-
ronian ; 3. Montalban ; 4. Keweenian ; 5. Lower Cambrian to which
period the overlying sandstones must be referred. Tliis disposes of
Bradley's late strange suggestion that the Huronian is probably
altered Lower Silurian that is to say, Lower Cambrian.

CRYSTALLINE ROCKS OF PENNSYLVANIA.
Hunt has described the crystalline rocks of the South ]\Iountain
between the Delaware and the Schuylkill, and of the Welsh Mount-

xcvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

ain between the latter river and the Susquehanna, as clearly of Lau-
rentian age, and has referred to the Montalban, the Philadelphia
gneiss and mica-slate series. He points out the existence of a hither-
to unnoticed Laurentian belt farther to the southeast, which sepa-
rates the Auroral limestones on that side of the Mesozoic from the
Montalban series ; and he notices between the latter and the Lauren-
tian a belt of Huronian strata of varying breadth, which is probably
unconformable with the Laurentian. He moreover describes the
South Mountain range, where it reappears again to the south of the
Susquehanna, as consisting, in Pennsylvania, chiefly of a large de-
velopment of Huronian strata, including great interstratified masses
of orthofelsite or petrosilex rocks (the halleflinta of the Swedish
geologists), which frequently pass into a quartziferous feldspar-
j)orphyry, generally of some reddish color. These acidic rocks rep-
resent in the Huronian the gneisses of the Laurentian and the Mont-
alban, and here, as elsewhere, are found to be distinctly stratified,
and intercalated with greenstones and chloritic and epiclotic rocks.
He regards them as the equivalents of similar rocks which form a
part of the Huronian series along the eastern coast of New England
and New Brunswick, and of the iron-bearing orthofelsite porphyries
of Missouri. They are also developed along the northern shore of
Lake Superior, and their ruins enter largely into the conglomerates
of the Keweenian series in Northern Michigan.

LOWER TACONIC ROCKS.

Hunt has further described the characters of the Primal and Au-
roral rocks of Rogers, as seen in the region to the southeast of the
North Mountain in Pennsylvania. These rocks were assumed by
Rogers to be the stratigraphical equivalents of the Potsdam, Calcif-
erous and Chazy of the New York series, and of the undoubted rep-
resentatives of these which occur west of the North Mountain.
They are the Lower Taconic quartzites and limestones of Emmons,
maintained by him to occupy a lower horizon than the base of the
New York fossiliferous series. They constitute, according to Hunt,
a partially crystalline series, distinct from and newer than the Hu-
ronian and Montalban. Interposed in the detrital rocks of the
Primal are schistose beds charged with micaceous and chloritic mat-
ters, crystalline limestones often inclosing serpentine, and important
beds of magnetite, as at Boyertown, Cornwall, and Dillsburg, all
of which present mineralogical characters unlike those of the un-
derlying crystallines. Similar conditions extend into the Auroral
magnesian limestone, giving to these two formations a distinctive
character. They were evidently deposited over a subsiding conti-
nent with bold shores, so that while the Primal has in some places a
very great thickness, it is elsewhere very thin or entirely wanting be-
neath the Auroral, which rests directly upon the older crystalline rocks.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. xcvii

INVERSIONS OF STRATA.

Hunt further points out that we have in this region many ilhistra-
tions of what seems to be a common foot, that when newer strata
dej)osited around the base of a ridge or barrier of older rocks have
been subjected to folding, they often assume a dip toward the bar-
rier. The movement in such cases, apparently due to lateral press-
ure, has sometimes even involved the older rock itself, and caused it
to be folded over, so that the newer strata are actually inverted and
overlaid by the older and unconformable rocks, as may be seen in
the South Mountain in New Jersey,

ORIGIN OF LIMONITES.
The presence in these Primal and Auroral strata of great beds and
masses of pyrites, and of others of carbonate of iron, is also noted ;
and where, as is often the case, these rocks are deeply altered by
meteoric agencies, the sulphuret and carbonate have been changed
into hydrated oxide of iron, which, in the form of limonite, abounds
in the clays resulting from this jDrocess of decomposition.

DECAY OF ROCKS.

This decay of the strata, so noticeable in these Lower Taconic
rocks, is also seen in the Laurentian gneisses of the South Mountain,
where these are protected from erosion. In such cases the par-
tially decomposed feldspathic rocks often contain nuclear masses
of the unchanged rock boulders of decomposition. Belt has
pointed out in Nicaragua examples of the slipping or sliding of
such decayed rocks on a mountain-side, by which undecayed por-
tions are carried down the slope and involved in the displaced
material. Kerr has lately further illustrated the question in North
Carolina by showing that alternate freezing and thawing of such de-
cayed rocks on a declivity may cause the descent of the material,
with scratching of the surface, thus giving rise locally to phenomena
similar to those often ascribed to sub-aerial glaciers. Such move-
ments of decayed crj-stalline rocks, either with or without the aid
of congelation, have no doubt in some regions been mistaken for the
result of ice-action.

LAURENTIAN AND NORIAN OF THE ADIRONDACKS.
Professor James Hall has studied the arrangement and distribu-
tion of the crystalline rocks in parts of the Adirondack region, and
has verified the old observations of the Canadian Survey that the
labradorite and hypersthene rocks, with titanic iron ores the Norian
series rest unconformably upon the Laurentian gneisses, which con-
tain the pure magnetic ores of the region.

5

xcviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

CRYSTALLINE LIMESTONES.

Hall finds that certain serpentinic limestones of the region are
newer than both of these series, which they overlie unconformably,
including at the same time fragments derived from the gneisses.
That crystalline limestones containing serjDentine and various other
minerals do, however, form portions of the Laurentian series in Can-
ada is undoubted, but it by no means follows that all such crystalline
limestones belong to this horizon. Hunt has pointed out that lime-
stones, much resembling in mineralogical characters those of the
Laurentian, occur in the Montalban of New England, and also, as
noticed above, that serpentinic limestones are found in the Lower
Taconic rocks of Pennsylvania. These facts give an additional in-
terest to the imjDortant observations of Hall, Some late researches
of Vennor in the province of Ontario tend to similar conclusions.

THE QUEBEC GROUP OR UPPER TACONIC.
The fauna of the Lower Taconic rocks in Pennsylvania is scarcely
known, but in addition to a Scolithus, which differs from that of the
New York Potsdam, Prime has made known the existence of an
undetermined linguloid shell, and also of impressions similar to the
Monocraterion found by Torell in the lowest Cambrian beds of Swe-
den, Referring to the lower divisions of Paleozoic time. Hunt has
again called attention to the fact that the so-called Quebec group
of Logan (the Upper Taconic of Emmons) was based ujion an in-
verted succession of strata on an overturned anticlinal. The slates
with compound graptolites, of the Levis division, which were repre-
sented by Logan as inferior to the Levis limestones, are of the age
of the Skiddaw or Arenig rocks, while the limestones themselves
are the equivalents of the Tremadoc division of Great Britain. The
Sillery, which was regarded as the summit of the Quebec group, is
much lower, and probably of Menevian age. In the province of
Quebec it rests in some localities on the crystalline schists of Hu-
ronian age, which were supposed by Logan to be the Levis and the
overlying Lauzon division in an altered condition, although the Levis
rocks are now shown by their fauna to belong to the upper part of
the series, and contain fragments of these same crystalline schists.

CRYSTALLINE ROCKS OF SCANDINAVIA.
Pettersen has described the crystalline rocks of Northern Norway
as including an older series of red and gray gneisses, often horn-
blendic, with micaceous and hornblendic schists and much crystalline
limestone. These are overlaid by a series of argillaceous and horn-
blendic rocks, with gabbro (diorite or diabase) olivine-rock, serpen-
tine and steatite, and associated copper and nickel ores. Related
strata are described by him as a series of many-colored argillites,

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. xcix

with greenstones, ferriferous dolomites, red hematites, and copper
ores. These groups of metalliferous strata are much contorted, with-
out organic remains, and are conjectured by Pettersen to be either
of Silurian or Devonian age, though they liave the characteristics of
Huronian rocks. In other parts of Scandinavia the notion of altered
Paleozoic rocks is carried to a much greater extent, and, according
to Tornebohm, all the various types of crystalline Eozoic rocks, in-
cluding the granitoid gneisses, are reproduced again at a higher
horizon, the fossiliferous Paleozoic rocks which repose on the Eozoic
being supposed to pass beneath, and to be more ancient than this
second and newer set of crystalline strata. It remains to be seen
whether this is really the case, or whether this apparent superposi-
tion results from the same structure as has been described above in
the Appalachians.

MARBLES OF CARRARA.
A similar question continues to occupy the geologists of Southern
Europe, where the crystalline rocks of the Alps, Apennines, and Pyr-
enees have been by different observers assigned to very different
horizons. The statuary marbles of Carrara arc an example of this. A
generation since they were looked upon as eruptive ; then, together
with their associated crystalline schists, they were declared to be al-
tered Cretaceous. They were subsequently referred to the Lias, until
shown to be unconformably overlaid by Liassic strata and to rest in dis-
cordant stratification on crystalline schists, when they were assumed
to be altered strata of Rha^tic age. Later observations placed them
beneath the coal-measures, and the Carrara marbles were then called
Lower Carboniferous, to which horizon some have also referred all
the statuary marbles and micaceous limestones of Central Italy.
Similar statuary marbles in the Pyrenees, formerly regarded as alter-
ed Mesozoic, are now considered to be Carboniferous, or still older.
According to Gastaldi the marbles and micaceous limestones of Italy
just referred to are still more ancient, and are closely related to the
Pietre verdi group ; so that their position, if not pre-Paleozoic, is at
the very base of the Paleozoic series.

CRYSTALLINE ROCKS OF ITALY. *

The name of the Pietre verdi or greenstone group, is given in Italy
to a widely spread series of stratified rocks of great thickness. It
consists, to a large extent, of rocks with triclinic feldspars the so-
called gabbros and diabases together with great masses of serpen-
tine, and diallage, and steatitic, chloritic, and epidotic strata, the
whole associated with quartzose and calcareous schists. These rocks
have been by most geologists looked upon either as eruptive or as
contact-deposits resulting from the action of eruptive masses upon
uncrystalline strata, and have been assigned, from their supposed

C GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

stratigraphical relations, to very different geological ages. Accord-
ing to Lory they are Triassic, while within the past year some have
been found closely associated with Silurian or Devonian fossiliferous
strata. De Stefani assigns certain of them to a horizon between the
Carboniferous and the Lias, others of them he refers to the Cre-
taceous, and others still are stated by him to overlie the middle and
lower Eocene. Gastaldi has, however, recently reviewed the whole
subject, and concludes that the rocks of the Pietre verdi are not
eruptive but indigenous, and constitute a well-defined series of beds
and lenticular masses, of great thickness, in which the serpentines
occupy a position near the base. The Pietre verdi has, according to
him, a constant and well-defined horizon, which is pre-Paleozoic, and
its rocks never make their appearance in other formations. This
formation, which has all the characters of the Huronian, to which he
has provisionally referred it, rests unconformably upon a great series
of gneissic rocks, often porphyroid and granitoid, which include de-
posits of graphite, beds of quartzite, lenticular masses of white statu-
ary marble, and doubtless represent the Laurentian. Overlying the
Pietre verdi is another great series of quartzites, and schistose lime-
stones and dolomites, including beds of gypsum near the summit.
These groups of ancient crystalline strata, according to Gastaldi,
constitute the basal rocks of the Alps and Apennines, and may be
followed from Mont Blanc to the Danube, the Adriatic, the Mediter-
ranean, and to the plains of France, overlaid in part by newer strata.
These views are in accordance with those maintained by Favre and
many others, who have shown by repeated instances that the ap-
parent interstratification of older among newer rocks in these regions
is due to inversions and dislocation. The w^riter, some years ago,
from his studies of Alpine geology, was led to maintain the view de-
fended by Gastaldi, and asserted the Eozoic age of these crystalline
rocks, including the Pietre verdi,

CAMBRIAN ROCKS OF EUROPE.

Hicks has discussed the different conditions presented by the Cam-
brian and Siluro-Cambrian rocks in Wales, where they have a united
thickness of 30,000 feet, and in Scandinavia and Russia, where they
are 1000 feet or less. He supposes them to have been deposited
over a slowly subsiding continent of Eozoic rocks, the surface of
which sloped toward a deep ocean to the southwest, and in accord-
ance with this view concludes that the earlier members of the Cam-
brian below the Menevian horizon are wanting in Scandinavia, which
was not submerged till then. To this Linnarsson objects, maintain-
ing: that both the Menevian and the fossiliferous Harlech strata,
which underlie it in "Wales, are represented by the Paradoxides
beds of Scandinavia, where below these are still recognized two dis-
tinct horizons of Paleozoic sediments, the Fucoidal sandstone and

INDUSTRIAL PKOGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. ci

the underlying Eophyton sandstone. Keitlier of these contain any
trilobites, but they afford brachiopods, pteropods, sponges, etc., be-
sides the moulds of what are regarded by Torell as two radiate
animals, designated by him as Monocraterion and Diplocraterion.
The thickness of these two sandstones in Middle Sweden is but 100
feet, but in Northern Norway they equal 2000 feet, and include schists
and limestones. Above the Paradoxides beds in Sweden are the
Olenus beds, which, although but forty feet in thickness, are sup-
posed to represent the 4000 feet of Lingula flags found in Wales be-
tween the Menevian and the Tremadoc. Linnarsson concludes that
the Paleozoic sediments known in Scandinavia are at least as old as
any thing discovered in Wales, where, however, there are 1500 feet
of sediments known beneath the Harlech trilobites. The fossilifer-
ous schists of the Baltic provinces of Russia, which are referred to a
horizon above the Lingula flags, have conformably beneath them
several hundred feet of shales and friable sandstone, the so-called
Ungulite grits, of the fauna of which very little is known, and which
rest directly on the crystalline rocks. The primordial zone of Bar-
rande, in Bohemia, is regarded by Linnarsson as equivalent to the
middle portion of the Paradoxides beds of Sweden ; although no
species of crustaceans are common to the two, there are many anal-
ogous forms. Linnarsson on paleontological grounds rejects, as w^e
have seen, the view that the basal fossiliferous rocks of Scandinavia
are less ancient than those of Wales ; but the constantly recurring
question comes up whether such a similarity or identity of organic
forms in widely separated regions indicates synchronous deposition,
or whether the successive appearance and disappearance of these in
Scandinavia may not have occurred at a somewhat later period than
in Wales.

CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN GERMANY.
The great region of sedimentary rocks in Moravia and Silesia,
long known for its roofing-slates, remained without any evidence
of its geological age until 1860, when fossils of Carboniferous age
were found, which showed its equivalence to the Culm formation of
Nassau. Since then the structure of this great mass has been un-
raveled, and it has been shown to consist of three divisions, each
of which carries an abundant fauna of Carboniferous age, now first
described by Steer, and a marine Paleozoic fauna. These three
divisions, which are of nearly equal thickness, each consist of sand-
stones and conglomerates, with roofing - slates, and have a united
thickness of 70,000 or 80,000 feet.

ARCTIC GEOLOGY.
Nordenskjold, from the results of his long researches in arctic
geology, attempts to discuss the question of the arctic climate in

cii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

former geological periods. We have there no clear evidence with
regard to the Silurian and Devonian ages ; but in the Carboniferous
time there was an extensive continental area around the pole, sup-
porting a colossal vegetation, the remains of which, inclosed in sand-
stones, rest in Spitzbergen upon a great formation of marine lime-
stone rich in corals of Carboniferous age. The Trias of this region
shows gigantic cephalopods and great saurians, which also point to
a tropical climate, and the succeeding Jurassic in Spitzbergen is ter-
restrial, with large cycads and conifers. The Cretaceous of the polar
regions also, according to this same observer, shows two horizons a
lower one, with a flora which Heer compares to that of Egypt, and
an upper, which contains a great variety of deciduous trees, and in-
dicates, for the first time, a slight change of climate. The Eocene
is wanting in these regions; but we have the wonderful Miocene
flora, which was spread over a great arctic continental area, and is
well known to have resembled that of Central Europe, or of the Ohio
valley of to-day.

FORMER ARCTIC CLIMATE.

Nordenskjold, moreover, fails to find evidences of former glacial
agencies in the sandstones of these regions from which we might in-
fer the former existence of alternations of warm and cold climates.
The advent of frost followed the Miocene period. Recent sjDecula-
tions liave revived the old notion of a possible change of the earth's
axis of rotation as a way of explaining this change of arctic climate ;
but such a phenomenon is astronomically improbable, and is also op-
posed by the fact that the direction of oceanic currents, which are
guided by the earth's rotation, appears, from the distribution of ma-
rine sediments, to have been the same since very early periods. Some-
thing may have been due to the depression of parts of the present
continents, which may have permitted the influx of warm waters into
arctic seas, but the evidence shows the existence of arctic continental
areas charged with vegetation. A simple solution of the problem
seems to be that long since proposed by the present writer, that the
presence of a larger amount of carbonic acid in the atmosphere up
to a late period, maintained, in accordance with well-ascertained
physical laws, a tropical temperature over the whole earth's surface,

at the sea-level.

ANTARCTIC CLIMATE.

In this connection may be noted the question of a glacial period
in the southern hemisphere. McCoy, from his studies of the fossil
forms of Southern Australia, concludes that there is no evidence
of a former period of greater cold, but that there has been a gradual
diminution of temperature down to the present time. Hutton shows
that the evidence in New Zealand is to the same efiect, as Hector
had already done before him.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. ciii

THEORIES OF GLACIATION.

The bearing of these observations and conchisions on theories of
glaciation is important. While some are content to limit the action
of ice to superficial modifications of the surface, others, as is well
known, maintain that the grandest valleys and the deepest and
broadest lakes have been sculptured by its agency, and that no for-
mer distribution of land and water is sufl&cient to explain the extent
of the ancient glaciers ; which were ice-caps stretching from the poles
to the equator, to explain the existence of which it is necessary to
resort to astronomical causes. These causes, according to different
theorists, would involve both hemispheres either simultaneously or
alternately, giving a succession of glacial periods which, it is claim-
ed, can be traced far backward in geologic time. Such views, it is
evident, are not easily conciliated with the late observations in the
arctic regions, in New Zealand, and in Australia ; and some of our
best physicists and astronomers venture to question the soundness
of the astronomical hypotheses of this school of glacialists. The
marks of a universal ice-sheet should be found all around the globe
in the same latitude and at the same levels, while it is well known
that glacial phenomena are limited to certain meridians, and that
great breadths afford no indications of ice-action. Hence the view
of local glaciers of great extent, the origin of which it is possible to
explain by geographical causes alone, now finds favor with many,
while increasing attention is given to the action of ice-floes and
shore-ice.

There are many problems relating to erosion and the transport of
materials which it is attempted to explain by glacial agency, and
the question how far this has been operative is now being discuss-
ed by many observers, especially in Great Britain. In opposition
to the views of Goodchild, who supposes them due to the eroding
action of a great ice-sheet. Miller endeavors to show that certain
escarpments in Yorkshire must have been pre-glacial, and Mackin-
tosh maintains that many of the phenomena referred to ice must
have been caused by marine action. Tjdor in the mean time urges,
with great ingenuity, that the present surfoce-outlines were deter-
mined by the action of water rather than of ice, and would substi-
tute for the Glacial a Pluvial period, in which rains, springs, rivers,
tides, and currents were tar more active than at present an exag-
geration which may be set against those of the other school.

GLACIERS AS ERODING AGENTS.

An important question which, it would seem, should take prece-
dence of all others in the discussion as to the orifjin and distribution
of glaciers or ice-sheets as geological agents, is whether glaciers can
act as eroding agents. Bonney furnishes hi3 contribution to the

civ GENERAL SUMxAIARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

subject by showing, as the result of long studies of Alpine glaciers,
that the plasticity of ice is such that it flows like a river over and
around obstacles instead of sweeping them away. An Alpine glacier
advancing over a tolerably level surface overrides the loose material
in front, scarcely disturbing it, and the great retreating glaciers
leave behind them nothing like the boulder-clay or ground moraine ;
the detrital matter from them, which is small in amount, being, like
that of the terminal moraines, derived from the surface of the glacier.
He argues that the glaciers, though they have moulded surfaces, have
not excavated nor modified the features of the valleys, which are an-
terior to the glaciers, and are due to fluviatile agencies. There are
phenomena of surface -geology for which the hypothesis of great
glaciers oflFers a plausible solution; but it must be received with
many limitations, w^hile the objections which are urged against it are
such that the present attitude of many judicial minds is at least one
of doubt.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. cv

GEOGRAPHY.

By LlETJTENANT-COMMANDEK F. M. GREEN, U. S. N.

Although the progress of geographical knowledge during the
year 1876 has not been marked by any very striking discovery, a
large number of valuable details have been accumulated in compar-
atively unknown localities. As maps become more complete and
communication with distant countries is improved, the necessity for
exact information becomes more and more urgent. The result is to
give to geographical investigations a more exact and scientific meth-
od. This tendency is very evident in the expeditions of various
nations recently fitted out.

THE UNITED STATES.

As in former years, the results of the government exploring and
surveying expeditions in United States territory are eminently inter-
esting and satisfactory.

The work of the English and American Commission for marking
the boundary-line along the 49th parallel of latitude from the Lake
of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains, generally known as the
Northern Boundary Commission, has been brought to a close, and
the reports to the respective governments, with majDS of the country
adjacent to the boundary on both sides, will be very shortly pub-
lished.

The astronomers and topographers attached to the U. S. Commis-
sion were officers of the U. S. Engineer corps, and their labors have
greatly added to our knowledge of the barren and dreary country
through which the boundary passes. Between the Lake of the
Woods and the Rocky Mountains forty-one astronomical stations
were established, and the boundary was marked by permanent mon-
uments.

Reconnaissances were made north and south of the line, so as to
thoroughly explore the country, to a distance of twenty miles to the
northward and one hundred miles to the southward of the bound-
ary. All trails which were passed over outside of the belt of accu-
rate survey were approximately surveyed.

The longitude of Pembina, on the Red River of the North, was de-
termined by the telegraphic method of exchanges with Chicago, and
a meridian line was traced with great care from a point on the line
six hundred and sixty miles west of Pembina to the vicinity of Fort
Shaw, where it was intended to observe the longitude by telegrai^hic

5*

cvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

exchanges with Salt Lake ; but this plan was frustrated by the bad
condition of the telegraph line in Montana, which in 1875 was bro-
ken in many places.

The trails thus reconnoitred were from the crossing of the Mouse
River ma Fort Totten to Fort Seward on the Northern Pacific Rail-
road ; from the Missouri at Fort Buford to the boundary, along the
two branches of the Poj^lar River, the meridian trail to Fort Shaw,
theRiplinger road along the base of the mountains from the bound-
ary to Fort Shaw, the trail from Fort Buford to Fort Benton, and
from Fort Benton to the Sweet Grass Hills. In addition, a recon-
naissance of the Missouri River was made while descendini? that
stream in boats, after completing the field-work for the season, in
September, 1874.

This reconnaissance demonstrated that the generally received
estimate of the distance from Fort Benton to Bismarck is too great
by about 400 miles, the survey fixing it at 805 miles.

The country for forty-five miles west of the Lake of the Woods was
found to be an immense tamarack swamp only passable when frozen,
and necessitating that part of the survey to be made in winter.
This was done with some difficulty, the temperature falling as low
as 51'' below zero. From this swamp to the treeless valley of the
Red River the country is woody and somewhat broken. Of the
country to the westward of the Red River very little was previous-
ly known. From this stream prairie land extends westwardly for
thirty-five miles, the boundary then meeting the first steppe, an an-
cient shore-line, now called Pembina Mountain, m.uch broken with
ravines and gorges, through one of which, 350 feet deej), the Pem-
bina River flows. After crossing this river the land ascends to the
upper plateau, about 1500 feet above the sea-level, forming the com-
mencement of the Great Plains, which extend for 700 miles to the
base of the Rocky Mountains. These plains are in some places quite
level, in others imdulating, with numerous hillocks, sometimes 80 or
100 feet in height.

A clayey soil, with some admixture of sand, supports the short,
wiry, and very nutritious buffalo grass. The first section of these
plains east of Turtle Mountain is seventy miles wide, and is almost de-
void of rainfall. Over it are scattered great boulders of granite and
limestone from a glacial drift. In crossing Turtle Mountain, a cu-
riously elevated and wooded district thirty-five miles wide, the bound-
ary crossed sixty-five j^ieces of water, of which twenty-five are true
lakes. The effect of this wooded area is very marked in attracting
rainfall, while the surrounding plains are suffering from drought.

For a distance of 138 miles west of Turtle Mountain the Great
Plains continue at an average elevation of 2000 feet above the sea,
the only break in the monotony being the valley of the Mouse River,
one or two miles wide, and 150 feet deep. The boundary then

INDUSTKIAL PKOGRESS DURING THE YEAR 187G. evil

crosses the second prairie steppe, called the Great Coteau, leading
to a plateau about 2250 feet above the sea, broken up by ridges and
hollows in every direction, but having farther to the westward a
chain of salt lakes about fifteen miles long. This is the central water-
shed of the continent, the Mouse River emptying into the Red River
and Hudson Bay, while the watercourses farther on fall into the
Missouri River and Gulf of Mexico. Here the " bad lands " begin,
having a clayey and barren soil, with a very rugged and broken
country extending more than 300 miles along the boundary.

At a point 500 miles west of Red River the country changes to an
arid plain of sand, with a little soil. Here butfalo were first met with
in great herds, and some fresh-water lakes with good pasture were
found.

The arid plain extends from east to west for 150 miles, being
crossed by the gorge of the Milk River, 300 feet deep. In the midst
of this barren expanse, rising abruptly like a group of islands, is the
mountainous cluster called the Sweet Grass Hills, or the Three Buttes,
the boundary-line crossing the northern slope.

The peaks of this group are 6800 feet high, and from them the
Rocky Mountain range, 150 miles distant, can be seen distinctly on
a clear day. After crossing St. Mary's River, the boundary enters
the fertile belt extending for twenty-five miles to the base of the
Rocky Mountains, which rise abruptly to peaks 10,000 feet above
the sea. The mountain region where the boundary crosses it is
about twenty-six miles wide, and upon the summit of the water-shed,
at an altitude of 6700 feet, is placed the monument marking the
western limit of the work of the Northern Boundary Commission,
and also the eastern limit of the boundary survey carried from the
Pacific side.

The maps constructed from the data obtained by both the United
States and the British Commission are upon a scale of two miles to the
inch, there being twenty-foui sheets in the series. A set of recon-
naissance maps, on a scale of eight miles to the inch, will also be pub-
lished in seven sheets, six of them showing the general topograph-
ical outline from the Rocky Mountains to the Lake of the Woods,
and the seventh sheet showing the profile along the boundary.

Attached to the British part of the Commission as geologist was
Mr. George M. Dawson, of Montreal, whose report (published in 1875)
contains a full description of the geology, particularly complete in
the discussion of the carboniferous deposit which extends from the
Pembina Mountains nearly to the Sweet Grass Hills. His discus-
sion is very valuable, as filling up the gaj) hitherto untraveled be-
tween the line of explorations made by Captain Palliser and Dr.
Hector, in 1857, 1858, and 1859, along the Saskatchewan, and those
of Professor Hayden and others along the Missouri.

Dr. Elliott Coues, the well-known naturalist, accompanied the

cviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

United States Commission in 1873 and 1874, and had unusual facil-
ities in making collections in Natural History and Botany. These
collections are now deposited in the Smithsonian Institution, and
his rej)ort will form a separate volume.

The labors of the parties belonging to the " Geographical Survey
of the Territories," under the direction of Professor F, V. Hayden,
. during the past season, have resulted in completing the survey of
the mountainous portion of Colorado, with a belt of Northern New
Mexico fifteen miles wide, and a belt in Eastern Utah twenty-five
miles wide.

For the summer's work four field parties were organized, each ac-
companied by a topographer and a geologist, and a large amount of
geodetic, topographical, and geological work was done, the details
of which will be found in the body of the present work.

Six sheets of the Physical Atlas of Colorado are nearly ready for
issue, covering an area of 70,000 square miles. The maps are con-
structed on a scale of four miles to the inch, with contour lines at in-
tervals of 200 feet.

The United States Geographical Survey west of the 100th merid-
ian, under the command of Lieutenant G. M. "Wheeler, U. S. Corps of
Engineers, has been prosecuted energetically, both as to field-work
and in the arrangement and reduction of the mass of material ac-
cumulated. A detailed account of the results accomplished will be
found in the body of this work.

Under the direction of Professor J. "W. Powell, the exploration of
the Rocky Mountain region has been carried on, as in previous years,
under the auspices of the Secretary of the Interior. A large amount
of triangulation and plane-table work was accomplished by the two
topographical j)arties, which were separated from the geological
parties, contrary to the custom heretofore. This method of opera-
tion gave increased facilities to both branches of the survey. An
account of both topographical and geological work is published in

the body of the work.

COSTA RICA.

The results of various surveys have been united by Mr. Friederich-
sen. Secretary of the Hamburg Geographical Society, in making an
excellent map of the republic of Costa Rica. The map is on a scale
of 3oowo 5 ^^ about 8i inches to a degree, and is far superior to any
heretofore published of that country.

BRAZIL.

In a memorandum prepared to accompany a physical map of
Brazil for the United States Centennial Exhibition, Senor Homem
de Millo calls attention to the gross errors continually made hereto-
fore in the rei3resentation of the mountain and river systems of the
empire of Brazil.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 187G. cix

The labors and investigations of Baron do Eschwege, Spix and
Martins, Saint-Hilaire, and more recently Mr. Liais and Professor
Hartt, afford material for a correct knowledge of the physical geog-
raphy. The surveys made for railway lines have afforded valuable
data, and very numerous astronomical observations for position and
barometric observations for heights have been made. The results of
all this work have been carefully eml)odied in a physical map, so that
no excuse will remain for such gross inaccuracies as have existed

heretofore.

PERU.

The first volume of the great work on Peru, by Don Antonio
Raimondi, has been published. By this accomplished geographer
and naturalist, Peru has for the first time been scientifically ex-
plored, Senor Raimondi having devoted a lifetime to the work.
More than a quarter of a century ago he made his first journey from
Lima across the Andes, and for nineteen years traveled over the
country on a fixed plan, diligently collecting materials before begin-
ning to preface his work for publication. The work will consist of
six parts, the first being devoted to geography and meteorology,
the second to geology, the third to mineralogy, the fourth and fifth
to botany and zoology, and the concluding part to ethnology. The
work is being published at the expense of the Peruvian government.

From observations made during a recent examination of Lake
Titicaca, Peru, Mr. Alexander Agassiz concludes that within a com-
paratively recent time the Pacific Ocean extended through gaps in
the Andes and formed an internal sea, the bottom of which is now
at a height of 2900 or 3000 feet above sea-level. This is proved by
the existence of coral limestone, similar to the West India formations
at about this height, about twenty miles inland from the Pacific,
Mr. Agassiz has prepared for publication a valuable hydrograjDliic
map of the lake from information obtained during his visit in 1875.

URUGUAY.

In the Democracia of Montevideo has appeared an excellent series
of letters by Seiior Clemente Barrial Posada, the geologist, describ-
ing the geology and geography of the interior of Uruguay. Taken
in connection with the reports of Mr. Twite's mincralogical explora-
tions in the province of Minas in 1875, these form valuable additions
to our knowledge of Uruguay.

BUENOS AYRES.
The government of the Argentine Republic has commenced the
publication in German and French of a physical description of that
country by Dr. H. Burmeister, who has resided there for the past
twenty years, and whose reputation as a geographer is a guarantee
of the accuracy of his work.

ex GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

PARAGUAY.

Our knowledge of the physical geography of Paraguay has been
very much increased by the observations of Keith Johnston, Esq., and
Lieutenant Congreve, R.N., during their extensive journeys in that
country in 1874, notes of which were published in tlie Proceedings of
the Royal Geographical Society in August last, and in the Oeographical
Magazine for September. Careful barometric and boiling-point deter-
minations of heights were made at numerous places, being in all
cases referred to the height of Asuncion above sea-level as a base,
this being first ascertained with great care, and found to be 321 feet,
instead of 253 feet, as heretofore supj)osed. The exact geographical
position in latitude and longitude of about twenty points in the
Argentine Republic and Paraguay have been fixed under the direc-
tion of Dr. Gould, of the Cordoba Observatory, the longitude being
in all cases ascertained with reference to Cordoba by the exchange
of time signals over telegraph lines. This w^ork, which is being
extended by Dr. Gould as fast as practicable, and which already
includes Valparaiso on the Pacific and. Montevideo on the Atlan-
tic coast, will be of immense service in rectifying errors in maps
already existing, and in furnishing bases for new surveys and cxjjIo-
rations.

BOLIVIA.

In Bolivia valuable work is being done Iiy Commander Musters,
R.N., and Mr. Minchin, a civil engineer employed by the govern-
ment in fixing the positions of important places, and in constructing
maps of Bolivia. All the longitudes are referred to that of Sucre,
the capital, a secondary meridian being established there 65 17'
west of Greenwich. A scale of fifteen inches to a degree has been
selected for their maps; and as the best now existing (made by
Colonel Ordasa) is very erroneous, the work now being done will be
of great value.

Besides numerous astronomical observations for latitude and longi-
tude of important points, very many hypsometric and magnetic ob-
servations have been made.

The discovery, in Sept., 1876, of the rich silver deposits in the
mining district of Caracoles, and the immensely rich guano beds of
Mejillones, have attracted much attention to the hitherto unknown
coast region of Bolivia. In Petermann's Mittheilungen for Sept., 1876,
Dr. Hermann Wagner has well described this coast district, with the
three great western terraces of the Bolivian Andes. Here as elsewhere
the searches for practicable railway routes have added much to geo-
graphical knowledge.

EUROPE.

The Geographical Society recently founded in IMadrid has re-
solved to devote its energies to tlie study of the Spanish peninsula

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. cxi

and of Sjoanish maritime possessions, the delineation of which on
modern maps and charts is in a lamentably imperfect condition.

In the Anuario del Observatorio de Madrid for 1876 is published a
notice, by Seiior Miguel Merino, of all the most important voyages
and geographical discoveries from the earliest time, commencing
with the somewhat apocryphal date of the Deluge, B.C. 2400.
Since the eighth century of the Christian era the work appears to
have been done with great care, the discoveries of the Sf)anish and
Portuffuese navigators in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries hav-
ing received especial attention. The w^ork deserves the notice of
everybody interested in the annals of maritime discovery.

During the past year the government survey of Austria and Hun-
gary has made marked progress. Nearly 150 sheets of the maps, on
a scale of 75^001 ^^^ published or nearly ready for jDublication. A
large number of places have had their longitude determined by tele-
graph ; the exact longitude of Vienna, to which they are referred,
being measured directly by telegraph from Greenwich. The Aus-
trian Military Geographical Institute has also published a map of
Bosnia, Herzegovina, Servia, and Montenegro in 132 sheets, on a scale
of 1

An important contribution to the history of geography has been
made by the publication, under the auspices of the Royal Italian
Geographical Society, of a bibliography of all geograjihical works,
both books and maps, in the Italian language, with a biograiDhical
notice of all Italian explorers and geographers.

In no way is the increased interest in scientific geography shown
more strongly than in the constant accessions to geographical socie-
ties already established, and in the formation of new ones. In Bel-
gium and in Denmark during the past year new societies have been
established under very promising auspices.

ICELAND AND GREENLAND.

Under direction of the Danish government, M. Steenstrup, a neph-
ew of the eminent geologist of that name, accompanied by Lieutenant
Holm, of the Danish navy, has sailed for Greenland, to commence
the exploration of the district of Julianshaab and the interior east
of that point. The first authoritative work on Greenland in the
English language has been recently published. It is the work of
Dr. Rink, for twenty years governor of South Greenland, and is one
of the most valuable contributions to arctic geography which has
been published for many years.

A Danish expedition has proceeded to Iceland, to explore, among
other localities, the vicinity of the recent volcanic eruption. Pro-
fessor Jonstrup, M. Fieldberg, surveyor, and M. Gronlund, botanist,
have accompanied the party. In a paper before the Royal Geograph-
ical Society, Mr. W. L. Watts has given an account of a journey to

cxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

the Iceland glaciers, and stated that these glaciers are manifestly in-
creasing in size from year to year, and, unless checked by a succes-
sion of warm seasons, seem likely to overwhelm the island.

ASIA.

In exploration, as well as in the publication of the results of
previous travels, a great deal has been done during the past year
toward increasing our knowledge of Asiatic geography. In this
work the Russian Geographical Society has been energetic, several
important expeditions having been, under its auspices, during the
past year, either undertaken, continued, or brought to a conclusion.
The most important of these, as well as the explorations carried on
by travelers of other nations, may be briefly noticed.

The work of carrying a series of levels across Siberia from the
European frontier to Irkoutsk, a distance of 2000 miles, under the
direction of Colonel Tillo, has been completed, and the results will
be shortly published.

The Olena expedition, in addition to the work noticed in the last
Record^ has, under command of the late M. Chekanovsky, explored
the Lena and Olonek Rivers, and has examined the great northern
tundra"^ of Siberia. This appears to be essentially different from the
marshy tundra of Western Siberia.

In addition to his geognostic and route surveys, M. Chekanovsky
brought home a paleontological collection comprising IGOO spec-
imens, all belonging to the secondary geological epoch, a herbarium
containing more than 3000 plants, and an entomological collection
numbering more than 7000 insects.

The shores of the Aral Sea and its affluent the Amu-Daria River
have been surveyed by a Russian party, and careful magnetic, mete-
orological, and astronomical observations have been made. An im-
portant addition to the knowledge of this region has been made by
the publication of " The Shores of Lake Aral," by Major Herbert
Wood.

By direction of the Russian Minister of Public Works, M. Si-
densner has visited Western Siberia, to ascertain the practicability
of uniting the great river systems of the Obi and the Yenisei.
He found that the Ket, an important branch of the Obi, afforded the
greatest facilities for this undertaking, while his colleague, M. Lo-
patin, explored the geology of the basin of the Chulim, where he
found iron ore. His researches further resulted in the discovery of
animal and vegetable fossil deposits in several places on this river.

* By the word timdra are denoted the immense plains in Rnssia and Sibe-
ria between the forest region and the Polar Sea. The ground, thougli al-
most every where continually frozen at a short distance below the surface,
produces in summer a scanty vegetation.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 187G. cxiii

An important step in the exploration of Central Asia has been
made by the expedition to Hissar under the direction of M. Mayef.
The party started from Karshi, in Bokhara, passing the Chakcha
Valley and the famous gorge known as the Iron Gate, near Darband.
This place had not been visited by Europeans since Clavijo's em-
bassy to the court of Tamerlane in 1404. They visited the towns
of Hissar and Faizabad, but were j^revented by illness among the
party from advancing, as had been intended, to the point of conflu-
ence of the Wakhsh and Panj Rivers, so as to fix its position astro-
nomically. The maps, when published, will be of great interest.

The remaining unsurveyed portion of the Usboi, or old bed of the
Oxus, has been explored and mapped by an expedition under direc-
tion of the Caucasus section of the Russian Geographical Society.

At a meeting of the Russian Geographical Society, March 15, 1876,
M. Sosnovsky gave an account of his recent journey through China
and Mongolia, by order of the Russian government, with the object
of opening new markets for Russian trade with Asia, and exploring
the route from Zaisang through Dzungaria and the province of Scech-
nen. The party set out from Kiakhta for Pekin, and reached Han-
kow in October, 1874. From here they ascended the Han-kiang
River, and, after traveling 800 miles by water and 1900 by land,
arrived at Zaisang, October 26, 1875, by way of Hanchung, Hami,
Barkul, and Guchen. This route can not but be of the utmost im-
portance as soon xis a railway shall have been built as far as Tinmen
and steamers navigate the Irtish River.

During M. Sosnovsky's journey the position of twelve points was
determined by astronomical observations, complete series of mag-
netic observations were made at ten places, and the altitudes of nu-
merous points determined by barometer or by boiling-point.

An account of the explorations by Lieutenant-Colonel Prejevalsky,
during 1870, 1871, 1872, and 1873, in Mongolia and Northern Thibet,
has been published during the past year. During the three years'
work his party traveled more than 7000 miles, about half of which
was laid down in routes surveyed for the first time. Numerous obser-
vations by barometer and boiling-point were made for altitude, and
the route surveys were checked by eighteen determinations of lati-
tude. The collection of plants, birds, animals, fishes, and insects was
very large and valuable, many of the species being new.

Colonel Prejevalsky has commenced another journey through Tur-
kestan and Thibet, the results of which will probably be also of great
, value. His party started from Kulja on the 22d of August, 1876,
and, crossing the Thian - Shan Mountains, will proceed by way of
Karashah to Lob-Nor Lake, where they will spend the winter. He
will proceed to Lhasa, and explore the upper course of the Brahma-
pootra, the northern slopes of the Himalayas, Eastern Thibet, and
Southwestern China, returning if possible to Russia by way of West-

cxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

ern Thibet and Kashgar. The expedition will make geographical
and ethnographical researches, and a route siirvej^ Positions will
be determined astronomically, and collections made in all branches
of natural history.

A survey of the coast of Eastern Siberia between the parallels of
45 and 52 N. has just been completed by Lieutenant-Colonel Bols-
chef The undertaking was a very arduous one, as there is no land
route along the coast, and in-shore navigation is always dangerous
and frequently impossible, owing to the shelterless character of the
coast and the heavy surf constantly beating upon it. The country
is well watered, fertile, and heavily timbered. The fisheries are very
productive and the mineral wealth is great : lead, silver, iron, cojd-
per, coal, and gold having been found.

An interesting rejDort by Colonel Bolschef of the general results
of this survey is contained in the July number of the Isvestia of the
Russian Geographical Society.

A German expedition has been engaged during the past year in
the exploration of Northern Siberia, under the leadershij) of Dr.
Finsch, accompanied by Dr. Brehm and Count Waldburg-Zeil, of the
Bremen PolarVerein. The details of their journeys are not yet pub-
lished, but the expedition has returned to St. Petersburg after a suc-
cessful summer's work. No less than seven additional scientific ex-
peditions have been engaged in the exploration of Russian Asia,
under the auspices of various Russian learned societies.

Petermann's Mittlieilungen, Supplement No. 46, contains a valuable
memoir on the Pekin plain and the neighboring* mountain-land, by
Dr. Breitschneider, being the results of observations during nine
years while the author was serving as physician to the Russian em-
bassy. His account of Pekin and its vicinity tends to confirm the
reports of Marco Polo. Dr. Breitschneider affirms that, instead of
one or two millions of people, from his own intimate knowledge of
Pekin, its population does not exceed at most 500,000.

In the Bulletin de la Sodete OeograpJiique the Abbg Armand David
gives an interesting account of his travels in Western China from
1868 to 1870. His object was to ascend the Yang-tse River, and pen-
etrate through the province of Sz-chuen into Thibet. In this he was
disappointed, principally owing to ill -health, but his exploration
of the Yang-tse afibrds much information of value as to the course
of this great river and its tributaries.

In India the work of the great Trigonometrical Survey has been
energetically carried on under the superintendence of Colonel Walker,
R.E. An appendix to Colonel Walker's rejDort for 1874 consists of
the report, by Captain H. Trotter, R.E., on the secret journeys of In-
dian employes of the survey in trans - Himalayan regions. Under
various pretexts and disguises, these officials, known as the Havildar,
the MoUah, and the Pundit, have traversed hitherto unknown re-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. cxv

gions, and have collected a mass of data, the results of which have
been an immense gain to the geography of these regions. In the
GeograijMcal Magazine for January, 1877, will be found a sketch of
the w^ork jDerformed during 1875.

The Geographical Magazine for October, 1876, contains an interest-
ing article on the authorities used by Major St. John in constructing
his map of Persia, in six sheets, on a scale of sixteen miles to an
inch. His map exhibits solely the information derived from trust-
worthy European sources. A vast amount of information embodied
in it is published for the first time, and the map is considered to be
of the highest value.

The geographical results of a survey made in 1872 and 1873 of
the routes for a railway to join the Mediterranean and Persian Gulf
are published in a supplement to Petermann's Mittheilungen. The
survey was made under the direction of Mr. Josef Cernik, who ar-
rives at the conclusion that the route through the valley of the Eu-
jDhrates is impracticable, and recommends a more circuitous line
along the base of the mountains of Kurdistan, through Mosul, Diar-
bekr, and Aleppo to Alexandretta on the Gulf of Iskanderun, or
Tarabulus on the Black Sea.

The amount of country surveyed in Palestine by the English ex-
pedition for that purpose during the past year is 1500 square miles,
making a total of 3500, and leaving about 1400 square miles in Up-
per Galilee to be completed. A line of levels between the Sea of
Galilee and the Mediterranean w^as commenced, but was interrupted
by the hostility of the natives. It is hoped that the trigonometrical
survey may be completed this year.

In February an expedition sent by the American Palestine Ex-
ploration Society, under charge of Dr. Selah Merrill, visited the val-
ley of the Jordan and the eastern shore of the Dead Sea, devoting
considerable time to the section at the northeast corner of the Dead
Sea and the mounds that exist there, with reference to the geogra2)hy
of portions of the 13th chapter of Joshua and the 82d chapter of

Numbers.

AFRICA.

The details and results of the journey of Lieutenant V. L. Cameron,
R.ISr., across Africa in 1873, 1874, and 1875, have been published
during last year, and entitle him to very high rank as a scientific ex-
plorer. The original object of the journey being to search for and
succor Dr. Livingstone, the expedition commanded by Lieutenant
Cameron left Zanzibar for the interior in March, 1873, and upon
hearing, in October of the same year, of Dr. Livingstone's death,
pushed on to Lake Tanganyika, to secure the effects of the deceased
explorer at Ujiji. This he succeeded in doing ; and taking such in-
struments of Livingstone's as were needed to replace those lost and
injured during his journey from the coast. Lieutenant Cameron f>re-

cxvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

pared for his western journey. After examining a portion of the
shores of Lake Tanganyika, he turned to the northwest and reached
Nyangwe, an important commercial town, in south latitude 4 12',
east longitude 26 31', in the autumn of 1874. Careful astronom-
ical observations were made here to determine a starting-point for
further exploration. Lieutenant Cameron's intention being to follow
the banks or valley of the Lualaba River, an affluent of Lake Tan-
ganyika, so as to prove its identity with the Congo ; but this was
found, from want of boats and from native hostility, to be impracti-
cable, and he was obliged to jDursue a more southerly track. Having
proceeded as far as the tenth degree of south latitude. Lieutenant
Cameron turned to the westward, and, passing along the water-shed
between the tributaries of the Congo and the headwaters of the
Zambesi, arrived after much delay and trouble, on November 4th,
1875, at the Portuguese settlement of Bengu61a, on the western coast.
Among the most important of the discoveries during this long jour-
ney was that of a hitherto unknown but extensive w^ater system,
formed by a river flowing through a series of lakes intermediate
between the Lomame and the more eastern valley which Dr. Living-
stone had followed up from Lakes Bangwealo and Moero. The
whole country betw^een Nyangw6 and Lake Dilolo, a distance of
over 600 miles, is new ground, as, although the Lulua, the Luburi, and
other rivers crossed by Lieutenant Cameron had been heard of be-
fore and the country had been traversed, he was the first to fix their
true position on the map. He ascertained that at Nyangwe the
Lualaba River is only 1400 feet above the sea, proving that this
great water system can have no connection with the Nile, that river
being at Gondokoro 1500 feet above sea-level. There seems to be
no reasonable doubt that the Lualaba and the Congo are identical.
The information collected by Cameron explains a great deal of Dr.
Livingstone's memoranda which would otherwise be unintelligible.

One of the principal geographical results of the journey has been
the construction of a section of elevation across the entire continent
of Africa between the fourth and twelfth degrees of south latitude,
verified throughout by careful astronomical obseiTations. Lieuten-
ant Cameron's diligence and skill in taking observations (over 5000
being made for latitude, longitude, and elevation), and the general
success of the journey, have earned for him his promotion in the
Navy to the rank of Commander, and the award of a gold medal
from the Royal Geographical Society.

The expedition sent out by the German African Society to pene-
trate into the interior from the west coast has not thus far been
very successful.

Dr. Otto Lenz, who had hoped to follow the course of the Ogowe
River, and who had so far succeeded as to overcome the opposition
of the inhabitants of the Oscheba lands, has been obliged to return

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. cxvii

to Europe in consequence of ill-health. The only remaining mem-
bers of the expedition, Dr. Paul Pogge and Mr. Edward Mohr, are
exploring the Angola coast, which is to serve as the starting-point of
their respective journeys.

An expedition under command of Count Pietro di Brazza, and
conducted at his own expense, has commenced exploration by way
of the Ogow6 River. The party started from Gaboon, and was fur-
nished by the French authorities there with an escort of seventy
colored soldiers. The party had at last advices succeeded in pene-
trating to Okanda, 500 miles from the mouth of the Ogow6 River.
This place will be used as a starting-point for explorations into
more unknown regions.

Colonel Gordon, R.E,, who has been engaged in the exploration
of the Upper Nile, has been most persevering in his efforts to find a
navigable channel to the Albert and Victoria N'yanza. Proceeding
up the Nile with a portable steamer and boats, progress w^as stop-
ped by the Tola Falls or Rapids in about 4 north latitude. He
therefore left the river and proceeded by land to the Victoria and
Albert N'yanza, taking possession of both lakes for the Khedive of
Egypt. Then returning to Duffle, above the rapids, he found the
steamer and boats, which had been carried piecemeal by the falls,
and dispatched M. Gessi up the river to the Albert N'yanza, which
was entered and circumnavigated, and found to be one hundred and
forty miles long and fifty miles wide. An inefiectual attempt has
been made to find among the numerous diverging branches of the
White Nile some stream which may carry boats round the Tola Rap-
ids. As all these branches have not been examined, Colonel Gor-
don thinks that w^ater communication between Khartoum and the
Victoria N'yanza may be established.

The circumnavigation of Lake Nyassa by Mr. E. D. Young has
been accomplished, and the discovery made that the lake extends
100 miles farther north than was supposed by Dr. Livingstone. No
bottom was found with 100 fathoms of line. A further examination
of the lake and of its shores will be made.

Mr. H. M. Stanley is still pursuing his explorations in Central
Africa, but no precise details of his travels since the publication of
the Record for 1875 are available to determine what additional
geographical information has been collected.

A large portion of Mr. Stanley's labor has been devoted to the ex-
ploration of the country hitherto unknown between the two lakes
Victoria and Albert N'yanza.

A geographical conference regarding the exi^loration of Africa
took place at Brussels, September 12th, and w^as attended by numer-
ous African explorers as well as eminent geographers from several
European states. The conclusions arrived at w^ere in general that
stations should be established on the coast and in the interior avail-
able to explorers as bases to start from.

cxviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

It is intended to limit the field of international exploration to the
region bounded on the east and west by the Indian and Atlantic
Oceans, and on the north by the frontiers of the Egyptian territory
and independent Soudan.

AUSTRALIA.

An account has been recently published of explorations made in
Southern and Western Australia in 1875 by Mr, Ernest Giles, already
distinguished in Australian discovery. The expedition started July
27, 1875, from Youldeh d^pot, 135 miles N.N.W. from Fowler Bay,
near the border of the known region of South Australia. The first
important discovery was the well of Oldabinna, an open space in the
scrub bush which surrounds it. Moving westward from this place
an utterly waterless country was entered upon covered with dense
bushes. Five hundred miles were traversed before any water was
obtained, and the region was utterly uninhabited by man or animal.
After passing this desert another was traversed, after which a re-
gion occupied by hostile natives was crossed, the expedition finally
arriving in November at Perth, Western Australia. The whole jour-
ney covered 2500 miles, in which not one area fit for settlement was
found. The line traversed lies between the route of Eyre in 1840
and Forrest in 1870.

Mr. Giles has during the winter season of 1876, from April to Au-
gust, accomplished a return journey, during which he traced the
Ashburton River to its sources, and determined the water-shed of
the western rivers, which he describes as simply a mass of rangy
country, abutting upon the desert in east longitude 120 20'. No
watercourses were found to flow eastward from the end of the
water-shed in that longitude. During the journey the longest time
the party were without finding water was ten days. They expe-
rienced an excessively cold winter, the thermometer in the morning
being for weeks down to 18.

NEW GUINEA.

The shores of New Guinea have continued to afford subjects of
interest to the explorer and naturalist. At the expense of the Gen-
oese authorities, Signor Odoardo Beccari has been engaged for some
years past in explorations in this vicinity, and has completed an im-
portant geographical work. In exploring the coast of Northwest-
ern New Guinea he has discovered a river called Wa Samson, flow-
ing from east to west for a distance of 215 miles, and afibrding the
principal drainage of this part of New Guinea. He has also ex-
amined Geelvink Bay, which separates the northwestern peninsula
from the mainland, and has made an important rectification of its
coast-line on the charts, shifting it to the northward in some places
as much as thirty miles. Until Signor Beccari's visit, the hydrog-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. cxix

raphy of this part of the island was based on an old Dutch chart
of 1705.

The Fly River has been explored by Mr. S. Macfarlane, accom-
panied by the Italian naturalist, Signor D'Albertis, in a steamer to a
distance of 150 miles from the mouth. This is the first positive
knowledge that the river is really navigable, and Mr. Macfarlane
considers it probable that they could have proceeded much farther
but for fevers which attacked nearly all the party. The land was
low and swampy, and the population scattered.

Signor D'Albertis proposes to revisit this vicinity and explore the
Fly River to the head of navigation, and from that point to cross the
country to Yule Island. The Chamber of Commerce of Sydney have
undertaken to assist him, and have furnished him with a steam launch.

Mr. Octavius Stone, one of the explorers of the Baxter River, has
been continuing his labors from Port Moresby to the eastward of
the Papuan Gulf. The low country of the coast seemed to be bare,
luxuriant vegetation only being found where the mountain ranges
rise and intercept the rainfall. Mr. Stone, in a recent communica-
tion to the British Association, remarks that the neighborhood of
the Baxter River and the shore west of the Papuan Gulf for 100
miles inland are swampy, covered with mangrove trees, and thinly
poiDulated. The climate of the western coast is peculiarly fatal to
Europeans, but the eastern peninsula is warm and healthy.

Dr. Miklucho-Maklay is engaged in exploring the group of little-
known islands lying between New Guinea, New Ireland, and New
Britain.

cxx GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

HYDROGRAPHY.

By Lieutenant-Commander F. M, GREEN, U. S. N.

The most strongly marked feature of hydrograpliic work for the
past year is the careful exploration of the depth and temperatures
of the sea, and of the nature of the bottom. Americans, English,
Germans, Norwegians, and Chilians have all added much to our
knowledge in this direction.

The United States Coast Survey has done valuable work of this
kind in the Gulf of Mexico, where very numerous soundings and
temperature observations have been made to determine the contour
of the bottom and of isothermal surfaces. In addition, the work of
completing the hydrography of those portions of our coasts not yet
thoroughly examined, and of re-examiniug the localities liable to
change, has been diligently prosecuted.

On the Atlantic coast surveying work has been done at Deer Isl-
and and Saco Bay, on the coast of Maine ; on the coast of New Jer-
sey, in Delaware Bay, in Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds, on the
coasts of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, and on the Florida
Reefs.

On the Gulf coast extensive work has been done on the coasts of
Florida and Louisiana, including observations of currents, volume
of discharge, differences of level, changes of depth, etc., at the
mouths and bars of the Mississippi River.

On the Pacific coast the survey of the coast-line of Northern and
Southern California, as well as that of Oregon and Puget's Sound,
has been carried on.

In the prosecution of these surveys nineteen parties have been en-
gaged on board of the same number of small vessels, nine of this
number being steamers and the rest sailing-vessels.

The work of compiling a " Coast Pilot," or sailing directions for
the Atlantic coast, has also steadily progressed.

The United States Hydrographic Office has continued the routine
work of exchanging hydrographic information with foreign hydro-
graphic offices, and of publishing, promptly all notices which might
be of use to our mercantile and naval marine. From the hydro-
graphic offices of England, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, Spain,
Austria, Denmark, Sweden, Portugal, Holland, Brazil, and Chili, in-
formation as to dangers discovered, or as to the establishment of
aids to navigation, has been constantly received, translated, and ex-
amined, while to these governments, as well as to chambers of com-
merce, marine insurance offices, and prominent newspapers at the

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. cxxi

principal ports, all sucli information coming to the knowledge of the
office is communicated. Seventy-five notices to mariners, embody-
ing information of changes in artificial aids to navigation, have been
published, as well as sixty-nine hydrographic notices of newly dis-
covered features in the earth's surface.

As far as the limited appropriations made by Congress would
permit, new charts have been engraved and published.

Sailing directions for the Pacific Ocean, the west coast of Africa,
a part of the coast of the Mediterranean, the Bay of Biscay, the
West India Islands, and for the coasts of Chili, Peru, and Bolivia,
have been published during the past year, or are ready for publica-
tion.

Under direction of the Navy Department, the U. S. steamship
Tuscarora^ Commander J. N. Miller, has examined the depth of the
Pacific Ocean from the Sandwich Islands to the Fiji group, and
thence to Brisbane, Australia ; to determine if the laying of a tele-
graph cable is feasible from California to Australia. In the per-
formance of this work one hundred and seven soundings were made
with steel wire. Specimens of the bottom were obtained from near-
ly every sounding, and are now being examined. Of these soundings
the deepest was 3448 fathoms ; there being nineteen of less than 1000
fathoms, thirty-eight of from 1000 to 2000 fathoms, thirty-two from
2000 to 3000 fiithoms, and eighteen of over 3000 fathoms.

The observations for the determination of secondary meridians in
the West Indies have been completed by the officers of the U. S.
steamship Gettysburg.

The undertaking of systematic determinations of longitude by
the electric telegraph, wherever submarine cables extend, thus com-
menced by the U. S. Navy Department, has received much attention
and commendation from foreign officers.

During the homeward voyage of the Gettysburg^ deep-sea sound-
ings were made in the intervals between those previously made by
H. B. M. steamship Challenger^ in every case confirming the Chal-
lenger'' s work.

In consequence of errors known to exist in the geographical posi-
tions of the north coast of South America, the U. S, steamship Huron
has been ordered to determine the longitudes of about thirty sta-
tions along that coast, measuring the longitudes by chronometer
from the meridians of Port Spain (Trinidad) and Aspinwall, jirevious-
ly determined with great exactness by telegraph.

The U. S. steamship Gettysburg^ while engaged in searching for
doubtful dangers in the eastern part of the North Atlantic Ocean,
has discovered a remarkable coral bank, about five miles in extent,
lying about one hundred and thirty miles to the westward of Cape
St. Vincent. The least water found on the bank thus far is thirty-
four fathoms, but there is probably less.

6

cxxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

The English have as usual performed by far the largest portion
of the hydrographic work of the past year. Under the direction of
the British Hydrographic Office, surveys of a permanent character
are being carried forward on the shores of England, Ireland, the
Gulf of St. Lawrence, Newfoundland, Labrador, Jamaica, Mauritius,
the east coast of Africa, Japan, Australia, and the Fiji Islands, while
detached surveys have been made in the Mediterranean, on the
coasts of China, and among the Pacific islands. Interesting results
have been derived from the examination by British surveyors of the
Mediterranean entrance of the Suez Canal, the approaches to which
do not seem to have shoaled as much as was anticipated.

Since the publication of the Record for 1875, the admirable work
done by the English surveying- ship Challenger has been brought
to a close by her arrival at SiDithead on the 24th of May, 1875. Re-
suming the sketch of her cruise where it was left in the Record for
1875, the ship, after refitting, left Yokohama on the 11th of May,
1875, for a short cruise of about three weeks to Kobe and the In-
land Sea, where some dredging was done, but witliout much success.
The expedition finally left Japan on the 16th of June, and, constant-
ly dredging and sounding in dejDths of from 1875 to 3950 fathoms,
arrived at Honolulu, Sandwich Islands, on the 27th of July. The
soundings between Japan and the Sandwich Islands were quite uni-
form in depth, the average of twenty-two being 2858 fathoms. The
bottom was generally red clay, frequently filled with concretions of
peroxide of manganese from the size of a grain of mustard seed to
that of a large potato. These concretions were formed by concen-
tric layers, starting from a nucleus consisting of some foreign body
like a shark's tooth or a bit of pumice.

On the 11th of August the Challenger proceeded to the island of
Hawaii, where the volcano of Kilauea, then in eruption, was visited,
and good photographs were obtained of it. On the 19th of August
the ship sailed for Tahiti, arriving there early in September. Many
soundings and dredgings were made on the way, with an average
dei3th of 2800 fathoms ; the bottom being generally of red clay, and
many things of great interest to the biologist being discovered.

Leaving Tahiti on the 2d of October, Juan Fernandez, at a dis-
tance of 4000 miles, was reached on November 13th, the section be-
tween the two places having an average depth of 2160 fathoms.

From Juan Fernandez the Challenger sailed for Valparaiso, sound-
ing, trawling, and taking serial temperatures constantly. From Val-
paraiso the homeward voyage was commenced on the 11th of De-
cember, ma the Strait of Magellan, where some valuable additions
were made to the naturalists' collections, the ship reaching Port
Stanley, Falkland Islands, January 23d. While here, magnetic ob-
servations were made at the exact spot where Sir James Ross's
magnetic observatory was established in 1842, when it was discov-

INDUSTRIAL PKOGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. cxxiii

creel that the inclination of the magnetic needle had changed from
48 26' in 1842 to 52 in 1876.

Leaving the Falkland Islands on the 6th of February, the Chal-
lenger proceeded to Montevideo, then to Ascension, Porto Praya,
St, Vincent, and Vigo Bay, the work of sounding, dredging, and tak-
ing serial temperatures being steadily and faithfully kef)t up. From
Vigo the ship sailed for England, arriving at Spithead on the 24th
of May.

During this long and admirably conducted cruise the Challenger
sailed and steamed more than 69,000 miles. Nearly 400 deep-sea
soundings were made, of which two were over 4000 fathoms, nine
between 3000 and 4000 fathoms, one hundred and sixty-eight be-
tween 2000 and 3000, one hundred and twenty-four between 1000
and 2000, and the remainder were under 1000 fathoms. Serial tem-
peratures of the ocean were obtained at 250 stations, and dredging
was effected at nearly as many. In addition to this work done at
sea, very many anchorages were surveyed, and numerous additions
and corrections made on the cliarts of the coasts visited.

H. B. M. S. Valorous^ after parting from the arctic ships Alert and
Discovery on the 17th of July, 1875, and stojiping en route at Hol-
steinborg, returned to Cork. During the three months' cruise of the
Valorous, in addition to the chief duty of supplying the Arctic Exjdc-
dition, much valuable hydrographic work was accomi3lislied. No
less than fifty-seven deep-sea soundings were made in Davis Strait
and the Atlantic ; dredgings which liave yielded important results
were made in hitherto unexplored regions ; valuable observations
of temperatures at different depths were made ; and several harbors,
including Holsteinborg wdth its approaches, w^ere surveyed. The
Atlantic soundings indicate that there is a cap or ridge with only
690 fathoms upon it, and with comparatively steep sides, at a dis-
tance of about 400 miles southeast of Cape Farewell.

Upon parting company with the Valoi'ous off Disco Island on July
17th, the Alert and Discovery took their way to the northw^ard, first
encountering the ice of the middle pack on the 24th of the same
month, but passing through it without difficulty in thirty-four hours.
After visiting Port Foulke and Life-boat Cove, the scene of the wreck
of the Polaris, the ice was met on July 30th off Cape Sabine, and from
this point a constant struggle with it took place until August 25th,
when, after many narrow escapes from being crushed, the vessels
reached a liarbor on the west side of Hall's Basin, in latitude 81 44' N.
Here it was decided to leave the Discovery, and she was accordingly
secured in sight of Polaris Bay, on the opposite side of the channel.
The Alert pushed on to the northw^ard, attaining a latitude of about
82 30' north, farther than any ship had previously reached, when
she was beset by the ice, and, sheltered by some bergs which liad
grounded in twelve fathoms of water, the ship was secured for the

cxxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

winter about three miles to the northward of the entrance to Robe-
son Channel. This, although a disappointment at the time, was prob-
ably fortunate, as the winter's observation indicated that, had a
more northern latitude been attained, the Alert would have been so
embedded in the ice that no amount of labor would have extricated
her. Instead of an open Polar sea, the ice was jammed together in
masses of extraordinary thickness like icebergs, in some instances
being from 150 to 200 feet thick, doubtless the accumulations of
many winters.

Upon its being evident that farther northern progress with the
Alert was not to be hoped for, the sledge work was commenced with
marked promptness and energy, exploring j^arties being sent from
the Alert to the north, northeast, and northwest, and from the Dis-
covery to the opposite Greenland shore. The sledge parties estab-
lished depots of provisions for the expeditions to be sent out the
next spring, but experienced much hardship and suffering. The
winter was unusually long, cold, and dark, the sun being absent for
142 days, and the temperature reaching 73.7 below zero, early in
March, on board the Alert, the Discovery at the same time registering
70.5 below zero. Magnetic, meteorological, and astronomical ob-
servations were regularly made during the winter, and many expe-
dients were successfully resorted to on board both ships to break the
dreary monotony, till, on March 1st, the sun again appeared, and prep-
aration for exploration by sledging parties was begun. By the be-
ginning of April every man, except those absolutely necessary for
the care of the ships, had departed, expeditions being sent in every
direction, those from the Discovery turning their attention principally
to the exploration of the western and northern coasts of Greenland.

A party under command of Commander Markham proceeded north-
ward. Their progress was most difficult, owing to the roughness
of the ice, but they reached a latitude of 83 20' 26", finding under
the ice a depth of seventy fathoms of water. No land was visible
to the northward from this point.

To the westward of the Alert the coast-line was examined for 220
miles by a party under command of Lieutenant Aldrich, the most
northern land found being m latitude 83 T N., longitude 70 30' W.

On the Greenland shore, parties from the Discovery, under com-
mand of Lieutenants Beaumont and Rawson, explored the coast-line
to the northeast, the farthest land found in this direction being in
latitude 82 54' N., longitude 48 33' W., apparently almost identical
with the Cape Sherman of the American charts. This coast is much
cut up with fiords and inlets. Lady Franklin Sound and Peter-
mann Fiord were also examined, the former being found to termi-
nate sixty-five miles from the mouth, and the latter to be blocked
up with a low glacier. This examination completes the shores of
Smith Sound, except Hayes Sound.

INDUSTRIAL PliOGKESS DURING THE YEAR 187G. cxxv

President Land, marked on recent charts as in latitude 84 N., is
shown not to exist, the land at the northern entrance of Robeson
Channel trending sharply to the westward from Cape Union.

In spite of every jDrecaution the sledge parties suffered dreadfully
from scurvy, but showed the utmost fortitude and self-devotion.
Fortunately only four deaths took jDlace, three from this disease
and one from frost-bite. The jjrevalence of this malady, and the
very clear demonstration that no new discoveries were to be an-
ticipated from protracting the stay of the exjoedition through an-
other winter, decided Captain Nares to proceed to England as soon
as the advancing season should liberate the ships. The Alert^ how-
ever, was bound fast by the ice till July 31st, when a start was made,
the Discovery being reached after much difficulty and danger. On
August 20th both ships commenced their homeward voyage ; but it
was not till September 9th that, by clearing the ice and reaching
open water, a certainty was assured of avoiding another winter in
these dreary regions. Both shijDS reached Queenstown on October
29th, and after a few days proceeded to Portsmouth.

The results of the various observations, physical and meteorolog-
ical, can not, of course, be known for some time, but will doubtless be
very important. Large collections of natural-history subjects were
made, among them some fine fossil corals, and the dredge and trawl
were used several times with great success.

This is not the place to discuss the general results of the expedi-
tion ; but its whole conduct is an ample guarantee that, when pub-
lished, they will be in an eminent degree interesting and trust-
worthy.

In connection with arctic research, Lieutenant Weyprecht, of the
Austro-Hungarian expedition, points out in an address delivered at
Griitz, in September, 1875, the advantages wdiich would accrue from
the establishment of fixed observatories at various points over de-
tached expeditions, which devote the best part of the year to sledge
journeys. Arctic research he considers of the highest importance,
but jDoints out that independent series of observations, especially if
chiefly devoted to geography, have but little value compared with
stationary observatories encircling the arctic lands, and working on
synchronous magnetic-term days and other agreed times.

These considerations have been fully presented by the German
commission to which the subject was referred, with Lieutenant
Weyprecht as a member. The commission also urges that a proper
understanding be had between different nations, so that the labor
of one party need not be duplicated by another.

An imjiortant contribution to arctic discovery is made by the pub-
lication, in Petermann's MiUlieilungen^ of the finished map and de-
scription of Franz-Joseph Land, discovered by the second Austro-
Hungarian expedition in 1873. Hitherto only an outline sketch

cxxvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

has been published, but this one is based on the results of Lieutenant
Payer's barometric observations for elevation. The land is not unlike
Spitzbergen, and is composed of several groups of islands. Franz-
Joseph Land exhibits the full rigor of arctic latitudes. In the be-
ginning of spring, especially, every thing is covered with ice.

It is known that Northeast Greenland, Nova Zembla, and North-
ern Siberia exhibit signs of a slow process of rising from the sea.
It was, therefore, very interesting to the voyagers to observe proofs
of elevation in well-marked drift terraces. Vegetation is very scanty.

The recently organized Marine Survey of British India, under the
superintendence of Captain A. D. Taylor, has been carried on in an
energetic manner, a large amount of work having been done in sur-
veying the approaches to Rangoon, Maulmain, the Bassein River,
and Akyab.

Several important coast charts have been published, as w^ell as
sailing directions for the Bay of Bengal, and a most important series
of hydrographic notices have been commenced.

Exceedingly valuable as the results of all these English surveys
are, they have been dearly purchased at the cost of the lives of sev-
eral of the officers making them, four at least in different parts of
the world having fallen victims to overwork and the unhealthiness
of the climate where their duties led them.

The German Hydrographic Ofiice, although very recently organ-
ized, has aided largely during the past year in the collection and
distribution of valuable information. The Annalen der Hydrogra^ihie
for the year contain abstracts of the journals of various voyages of
German men-of-war, whose commanders have lost no opportunity
of deep-sea sounding, correcting charts and sailing directions, or of
redetermining untrustworthy geographical positions. Prominent in
this work has been the corvette Gazelle, a portion of the scientific staff"
of this vessel being the observers of the transit of Venus at Kerguelen
Island. The expedition left Kiel June 21, 1874, and proceeded by
w^ay of Madeira, Porto Praya, Monrovia, Ascension, the Congo River,
and Cape of Good Hope to Kerguelen Island, sounding, dredging,
and taking serial temperatures at sea wlienever an opportunity of-
fered. The most remarkable discovery during the outward voyage
of the Gazelle was that the soundings in the vicinity of the Cape de
Verde Islands indicated that the islands form parts of the rim of an
enormous submarine crater, similar in form to the crater of an iso-
lated volcano.

During a,stay of more than two months at Kerguelen Island, in
addition to other work, a hydrographic survey of the northeast coast
of the island was made, this vicinity having been almost unknown
hitherto.

From Kerguelen Island the Gazelle proceeded to Mauritius, and
thence to Western Australia, Timor, and Amboyna, constantly mak-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 187G. cxxvii

ing observations at sea of depth, temperature, and currents ; and
when in port making use of every opportunity of correcting charts.

Leaving Amboyna on the 11th of June, 1875, the northeast coast
of New Guinea, with the adjacent islands, was visited and explored;
the expedition next visiting Western Australia, New Zealand, the
Fiji and Samoan groups. Passing from the Pacific Ocean through
the Strait of Magellan, at Montevideo the English exploring -ship
Cliallengev was met. From Montevideo the Gazelle sailed for home,
arriving at Kiel on April 28, 1876. Differing from the famous cruise
of the Challenger only in extent and duration, the observations made
during the cruise of the Gazelle promise equally important results.

Within a short time ships of the English, German, and United
States navies have determined the exact depth of the ocean in more
than 1200 places where it was previously unknown.

The French Depot des Cartes et Plans de la Marine have published
numerous valuable charts and sailing directions, the most important
of the latter being a minute description from recent surveys of the
island of Guadeloupe. The most important survey made during
the past year by French naval officers has been the survey of the
shores of the Gulfs of Sidra and Gabes on the north coast of Africa.
These shores, between Sfax and Benghazi, have not heretofore been
regularly surveyed, owing to the barbarity of the inhabitants and
the shelterless character of the coast, and it was with great difficul-
ty that Captain Mouchez, the officer charged with the work, was
able to complete it.

The Chilian government have done excellent service by their re-
cent establishment of a hydrographic office, mucli valuable informa-
tion having been already collected and published.

The Chilian corvette Ancud has made a series of deep-sea sound-
ings betw^een Valparaiso and Caldera, preparatory to the laying of a
telegraph cable between these two points. The west coast of South
America affords a wide field for hydrographic work, and there is
every reason to hope that the work so well begun by the Chilian
government will be continued.

Japanese officers have made useful surveys principally of harbors
on the coasts of the larger islands of Japan, and also among the off-
lying groups to the south westward, notably at Oosima Island and
the Meiaco Sima group.

Many of these surveys are published by the Japanese authorities
in a form useful for navigators of other countries.

The Norwegian deep-sea sounding expedition in the Voringer has
done good work during the summer. Leaving Christiansund on
June 27th, sounding and dredging was carried on between Norway,
the Faroe Islands, and Iceland very successfully. The scientific
results of the expedition are already considerable ; the animal life
exhibiting a much greater variety than was expected, although the

cxxviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

depths and distribution of temperature were not very diflferent from
the anticipations previously formed.

Magnetic observations were made at various points in Iceland
and the Faroe Islands.

Under the leadership of the celebrated arctic explorer Professor
Nordenskjold, an exjDedition has been at work during the past sum-
mer having for its main object the survey of the navigable waters
between the Obi, Yenisei, and Norway.

This work has been successfully completed, and Professor Nor-
denskjold states that the navigability of the rivers may be con-
sidered as practically established, and that it is practicable to
maintain trade communication between the different portions of
the Kara and the Y^'enisei.

The Kara Sea was found free of ice between September 2d and
7th, and a new island was discovered at the mouth of the Y'enisei, in
73 N. latitude, which has been named Sibiriakoff Island. On both
sides of it the water is deep and free from shallows, and the island
will form a valuable protection against northwest winds and sea.

Professor Nordenskjold concludes his interesting report of his
summer's work by expressing his conviction, shared by the walrus-
hunters whom he consulted, that a regular sea communication
between Siberia and Northern Europe during a short season of
the year ought not to be attended with greater risks and dangers
than seamen encounter on many other waters now yearly visited
by thousands of vessels.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. cxxix

ANTHROPOLOGY.

By OTIS T. MASON,
Columbian Univbksity, Washington.

Anthropology is either descriptive or deductive. Descriptive
anthropology gives an account of investigations concerning extinct
or extant tribes of men. The former study is also called Archaeol-
ogy, and may be either prehistoric or classical ; the latter is called
Ethnography. Deductive anthropology embraces all discussions re-
lating to mankind, including the study of his geological, zoological,
and geographical origin, his primitive and subsequent somatical and
psychical conditions and variations, the influence of environment,
and the progress of culture. A complete account of the subject
would also include a description of the various instrumentalities of
research, and apparatus for observation and measurement, an accurate
terminology, instructions to observers, a report of local and general
meetings and international conventions, and a catalogue of all
" transactions," private collections of merit, museums, periodicals,
and books devoted to anthropology.

The following summary is arranged upon the order just mentioned ;

but, to avoid repeating much that has occurred in former volumes of

the Annual Recmxl^ and on account of the limited sjiace allotted to

each summary, many of the headings will have to receive a brief

consideration.

I. ARCHEOLOGY.

North America. Mr. William H. Dall read before the Washington
Philosophical Society, January 31st, a long and carefully prepared
paper upon " A Succession of Shell-heaps in Alaska." The author
found in the mounds three layers, which he named, respectively, the
echinus layer, the fish-bone layer, and the mammalian layer ; and
holds that these represent three grades of culture which have been
developed in this region. Adolphe Pinart recently announced to
the French Geographical Society his discovery of mounds upon the
southern portion of Vancouver Island different from the shell-heaps
of the coast.

At the last meeting of the American Association,Mr. G.H.Perkins
read a paper upon " The Ancient Pottery of Vermont." At the
same meeting, Mr. Henry Gillman made three communications, en-
titled " Peculiarities of the Femora from Tumuli in Michigan,"
" Some Observations on the Orbits of the Crania from the Mounds,"
and " Investigation of the Burial Mound at Fort Wayne, on the De-
troit River, Michigan."

6*

ex XX GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

The Proceedings of the Davenport (Iowa) Academy of Natural
Sciences, Vol. I., covering the period from 1867 to 1876, is a publica-
tion worthy of the highest praise. The zeal of the members of the so-
ciety, and the generosity of its lady friends, are alike commendable.
The archaeological contributions relate principally to Ohio mounds ;
and the most noteworthy feature of their relics is the frequency of
copper celts, some of which are found wrapped in a coarse cloth.

The archaeology of Missouri is discussed in the third volume of
the Transactions of the Academy of Sciences at St. Louis.

In the American Naturalist for February, Dr. C. C. Abbott defends
the existence of a palaeolithic and a neolithic age in New Jersey.
The shell-heaps are traced back to a period 6000 years before Co-
lumbus.

Cave explorations have been made in Pennsylvania by Professor
Haldemann and Professor Baird. They have yielded no evidence
of the existence of man beneath the stalagmite. Bone implements
and fine stone implements have been discovered, and some slight in-
dications of cannibalism.

The mound-builders have been discussed in a pamphlet by Mr.
G. S. B. Hempstead, of Portsmouth, Ohio ; in contributions to the
Scientijic Monthly of Toledo, by Mr. Charles Whittlesey ; and in a
paper read by Hon. Lewis H, Morgan before the National Academy,
in April, and published in the North American Review for July.
The last-named memoir is worthy of the cautious and exhaustive
pen of our countryman. " The mounds are considered as dwelling
sites of ' village Indians.' The embankments, if reformed, would re-
semble a railway grade with a summit platform. These were the
sites of the houses. The buildings were of timber, on the summit
of the embankments, thus making a continuous, sloping rampart
twenty feet high." Mr, Morgan reproduced in drawings the ground-
plan of the structure, and an ideal reconstruction of a mound-build-
ers' village,

Mr, Charles M. Wallace, of Richmond, Virginia, contributes to 8il-
liman's Journal^ No, HI., 1876, an article upon flint implements which
the author claims to have found in the stratified drift in the vicinity
of that city. Whether they are of human origin or not, they are use-
ful as throwing light upon similar objects found in other places.

The subject of pigmy graves in Tennessee and Kentucky is re-
vived in our popular journals, and we are informed that many intel-
ligent persons still believe in the former existence of such a race.
The whole matter is set at rest, however, by the investigations of
Jones, Clarke, Haskins, and Troost, a review of whose labors will be
found in Harper'^ s Magazine for December, 1876,

No, IV,,Vol. I,, of the Memoirs of the Peabody Academy of Science
contains the essay of Professor Jeifries Wyman upon the "Fresh-
water Shell-mounds of the St. John's River, Florida." The work of

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 187C. cxxxi

publication was superintended hj Professor F. W. Putnam. In ad-
dition to the ordinary finds in such localities, some striking facts
are elicited. " The mounds contain human bones, broken up in the
same way as the bones of edible animals, and are believed to be the
remains of cannibal feasts. They contain fragments of the bones and
teeth of extinct animals, as the mastodon, elephant, horse, ox, turtle,
manatee, and a cetacean. These have undergone changes which
show that they were not contemporaneous with the builders of the
mounds."

The Ninth Annual Report of the Trustees of the Peabody Museum
of American Archgeology and Ethnology gives an account of the
work done during the year, the report of collections and distribu-
tions, and an index to all the volumes of the series. The portraits
of Mr. Peabody and Jeffries Wyman accompany the work. Professsor
Hay den has issued during the year No. I. of the second volume of
his Bulletin. It is devoted almost wholly to archaeology and anthro-
pology. The articles are by Messrs. Holmes, Jackson, Bessels, and
Barber, and contain profuse illustrations of the cliff-dwellings and
the old Pueblo pottery. The Professor has also had plaster models
made of the best preserved cliff structures.

Dr. Palmer has sent to the Smithsonian Institution an account of a
mound excavated near St. Georges, Utah, which gives evidence of
having been built up by reconstructing dwellings over the sites of
those Avhich had been burned, possibly on account of desertion at
the death of the former occupant.

Principal J.W. Dawson read before the Victoria Institute, London,
March 20th, a paper entitled " Fossil Agriculture in America."

The Geographical Society of Lyons publishes a paper, by M. Emile
Guimet, upon the " Origin of the Ancient Mexicans." The object
of the pamphlet is to overthrow the theory that relics of Egyptian
influence are traceable in Mexican remains.

The most notable publication of the year upon North American
archaeology is a profusely illustrated work by Dr. Charles Rau, based
upon the specimens in the National Museum. It has been issued by
the Smithsonian Institution among the " Contributions to Knowl-
edge." The archaeological exhibition at the Centennial, under the
direction of the same gentleman, has been the means of doubling
the material and value of the national collection.

Middle America. In the Proceedings of the American Philosoph-
ical Society, 1875, is a long and elaborate article on the Indians of
Costa Rica, which makes several allusions to the antiquities of that
country. Mr. Hyde Clarke's paper, read before the London Anthro-
pological Institute, July 25th, on the " Worship of Siva in Central
America," opens a new field of thought with reference to American
mythology.

cxxxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

A paper upon the " Antiquities of Porto Rico " was read before
the American Association by O. T. Mason, based uj^on the generous
gift of Mr. George Latimer to the Smithsonian Institution, mention-
ed in the last volume of the Record.

South America. Das Ausland, for April 24th, commences a series
of articles upon ancient Peru, and Macmillan & Co. have in press a
volume, by Mr. E. G. Squier, upon the same subject. J. J. von Tschudi
has published in Vienna, " Ollanta, an old Peruvian Drama in the
Quichua Language." The sixth volume of a great work, by Antonio
Raimondi, entitled " Demarcacion Politica del Peru," is devoted to
ethnology and archaeology.

Herr Fritz Miiller writes to Mr. Charles Darwin, in a letter pub-
lished in Nature., April 1st, concerning the " Sambaques," or " Cas-
queros," shell-heaps of the Brazilian coast. They exist in great num-
bers and of immense size. In some of them skulls were found of
unusual thickness.

Europe. The Quarterly Review^ No. 283, has an article upon the
" Rude Stone Age in the Orkney Islands." Mr. Pengelly read before
the British Association the report upon Kent's Cavern during the
last year. The excavations, successful in other respects, revealed no
human remains. Mr. Thomas Belt contributes to the Quarterly Jour-
nal of Science for July a paper on the " Geological Age of the Deposits
containing Flint Implements at Hoxne, in Sussex, and the Relations
that Paleolithic Man bore to the Glacial Period." Mr. A. Whitley
made a communication to the Victoria Institute, March 20th, upon
the " Flint Knives from Brixham Cave." The author is of the opin-
ion that the older palaeolithic knives, etc., are not of human manu-
facture. The exploration of Cisbury Camp, near Northing, Sussex,
is reported in the Proceedings of the Anthropological Institute, No-
vember 23, 1875, and Professor Rolleston adds an exhaustive account
of the animal remains, including the skeleton of a woman. Before
the same society. Canon Rawlinson read a paper. May 3d, upon the
" Ethnology of the Cymbri." Further information upon extinct races
in Britain may be found in the following references : Professor Rol-
leston, on the " People of the Long-Barrow Period," Anthropological
Institute, January 22d ; on the " Tumuli belonging to the Viking
Age," British Scandinavian Society, January 18th ; on the " Traces
of Early Phoenician, Jewish, and Carthaginian Intercourse in the
British Isles," by Mr. F. A. Allen, Victoria Institute, February 21st ;
Aneurio Vaard, upon " Bardism, or the Primitive System of Instruc-
tion, Knowledge, and Morals among the Britons," in the Interna-
tional Review^ March and April ; Professor Rolleston, on the " Pre-
historic Pig in Britain," Linnsean Society, June 15th. The tendency
of English geologists is to refer the palaeolithic implements of Brit-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. cxxxiii

ain to a preglacial, or at least to an interglacial epoch. Mr. Hughes
however, objects to the theory. The subject is discussed in Nature
for September 21st, October 5th, and November 23d.

At the session of the anthropological section of the French Asso-
ciation, August 23, 1875, M.Valdemar Schmidt discussed the funeral
rites of Scandinavia and other parts of the world. The subject of
Swedish archaeology is made accessible by a work entitled " Biblio-
graphic de I'Archgologie prehistorique de la Su^de jDcndant le XIX^
Si^cle." Stockholm, 1875, lOG pp. 8vo.

The Eevue d^A7ithropologie for February contains the description
of the celebrated tumulus of Eshoj, in Denmark, by Professor C.
Engelhardt.

Upon Russian archaeology and antiquities the following treatises
may be consulted : " tude sur les peuples primitifs de la Russie ;
Les Meriens," by Count Ouvaroff, in MaUriaux for May ; " The North-
ern and Northeastern Frontages of the Indo- Europeans in Early
Times," Anthropological Institute, H. H. Howorth.

In France the greatest interest is manifested in archaeological mat-
ters. The three journals noticed in the preceding volumes of the
Record continue their able editorial stafls, and are really the highest
authority upon the French side of disputed questions. We select a
few titles from many quite as able and important : " Super j)osition
du Solutreen au Moust6rien, a Thorigng," Materiaux, No. 4 ; Etudes
sur quelques monuments megalithiques de la vallee de I'Oise," by
Am. de Caix de St. Aymour (ilnd.) ; " Les Tombes lacustres d'Auver-
nier," Dr.V. Gross (ibid.) ; " Histoire des mammif ^res quaternaires ou
actuels de nos pays," J. Gaudry, No. 5 ; " Note sur la decouverte
d'une station humain de I'gpoque de la pierre polie prfes de Belfort,"
Ch. Grad (ibid.) The " Horse of Solutr6" is discussed by E. Trutat,
in the Bulletin de la Society d'Histoire Naturelle de Toulouse, 1874-
1875. M.Vacher read a paper at the French Association upon the
" Ancient places of adoration and upon traces of pagan worship in
Auvergne and in Lemousin." In No. 3 of Comptes-Rendus there is an
article by M. Jaubert upon human remains in the grottoes of different
parts of Provence. The Rev.W. C. Lukis, through Johnson & Co.,
London, publishes a guide to the chambered barrows of South Brit-
tany. The object of this Manual is to enable tourists to make good
use of their time in visiting the dolmens of Morbihan, etc.

Drs, Rehman and A. Ecker contribute to the Archiv fur Anthi'o-
pologie an article on the quaternary fauna of the valley of the Donau.
There is a growing disposition among German archaeologists to set
aside the division of the prehistoric age into palaeolithic, neolithic,
bronze, and iron periods ; and several discussions have been publish-
ed, not only in Arcliiv^ but also in Das Ausland and other German
periodicals, looking toward the adoption of two periods only the
stone and the metallic.

cxxxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

The Longmans have published, a translation of Merk's work on
the excavation at Kesserloch, near Thayngen, Switzerland, which
will place this valuable treatise within the reach of English readers.
Some doubt is thrown upon these relics by P. Lindenschmidt {ArcMv,
IX., 173). The discovery of sharpened sticks in an interglacial coal-
stratum of Switzerland, noticed in the last Becoixi, is reviewed by
Professor Steenstrup in Archiv, under the question whether we have
here veritable traces of man, or only the w^ork of beavers. The
learned archaeologist accompanies his discussion with numerous il-
lustrations, and adduces several instances of sticks in the Danish
peat which were thus sharpened. The question what the lacustrians
did. with their dead has been partly answered by the discovery of
one of their tombs on Lake Neuchatel, between Auvernier and Co-
lombier. The slab graves very much resembled those found in the
mounds of Tennessee.

In Materiaux, No. 12, 1875, is an article by E. Riviere upon the
quaternary fauna of the caverns of Baousse-Rouss, in Italy, called
the grottoes of Mentone. Rev. A. H. Sayce reviews in Academy^ Jan.
29th, Corssen's great work on the Etruscan language. He considers
it a failure, " but of such a useful kind that, if Corssen has failed to
show that Etruscan is an Italic diet, the question, so far, may be con-
sidered as settled, for where Corssen has not succeeded, no one else
will." Signor Alessandro Castellani read an instructive paper before
the American Association upon Etruscan and Greek art in jewelry,
and its revival. Count Gozzadini published at Boulogne, 1875, a
beautifully illustrated quarto, entitled "De quelque mors de cheval
italiques et de T^p^e de Ronzano en bronze." In the Comptes-Rendus
de I'Academie des Sciences, etc., de Boulogne, 1875, Signor J. Capel-
lini treats of the Pliocene man in Tuscany. The argument rests,
however, upon gashes in the bones of Balasnotus and other water
animals. To this P. C. de Fondouce replies {Materiaux^ No. 5) that
these gashes are often made in conflicts between individuals of living
species. The most important archaeological discoveries in Italy are
those which have been made in the excavations at Rome.

Mr. Percy Gardner read a paper before the Royal Society of Liter-
ature, April 19th, on "Greek River "Worship." The subject of glass
manufacture among the ancient Greeks is discussed by X. Landerer
in Gaea^ 1876, p. 511. The objects are found mainly in the graves of
women, and consist principally of long-necked vases, some of which
contain toilet waters. Schliemann, in his researches at Mycenae,
claims to have found the tomb of Agamemnon, containing immense
treasures.

Africa. In the Revue d'Anthropologie, No. 3, for this year, is a pa-
per by M. Tissot upon the mcgalithic monuments and the blonde
people of Northern Africa. The article is followed by a learned dis-

INDUSTRIAL PROGllESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. cxxxv

cussion by Dr. Paul Broca upon the connection between these monu-
ments, the blonde element in the population, and the early migration
of white races into Northern Africa. He opposes the old opinion
that the blonde element in the Berber race is derivable from the
Huns of Genseric.

The Rede lecture delivered in the Senate-house of the University
of Cambridge, by Samuel Birch, was upon the " Monumental History
of Egypt." The whole period of.Egyptian history is discussed from
the earliest monumental remains to the time of Decius, 250 A.D.
The subject of prehistoric remains is also discussed in the address.
The Quarterly Journal of Science, January, 1876, reviews the " Papyrus
Ebers," the Hermetic Book of Medicine of the ancient Egyptians,
published in Leipsic, in two volumes, by Engelmann. In a paper
read before the Victoria Institute, March 6th, Mr. W. R. Cooper dis-
cusses the " Horus Myth." Mr. E. Naville, of Geneva, is engaged in
collecting the material for an exhaustive edition of the Rituel Fune-
raire, or " The Book of the Dead."

Asia. In order to have any idea of the immense amount of work
done yearly upon the subject of Asiatic archaeology, one must study
the Transactions and other publications of the Royal Asiatic Society
and its East Indian branches, of the Society of Biblical Archaeology,
of the Societe Asiatique, and of the Morgenlandische Gesellschaft.
Only the most meagre reference can be given here.

The American Palestine Exploration Society seems to be dying
out. The Rev. Selah Merrill, however, still holds his ground. The
new excavations in the Mesopotamian valley, cut off by the death
of Mr. George Smith, will be continued by Mr. Hormuzd Rassam,
who has obtained from the Porte a concession of protection for two
years. The magnificent discoveries of Di Cesnola, at Kourium, Cy-
prus, will grace the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, where
his other Cyprian relics are deposited.

Materiaux, No. 4, 1876, contains an illustrated article upon the
erection of megalithic monuments still practiced by some of the
mountain tribes of India. The whole series of translations from the
" Sacred Books" of the world will be edited by Professor Max Miil-
ler. The work will be divided into six sections, under competent
specialists, viz.. Brahmin, Buddhist, Zoroastriau, Confucian, Lao-tsean,
and Mohammedan.

Polijnesia. Nature for October 26th contains a lengthy abstract
of a paper by Dr. Haast, read at the Philosophic Institute of Canter-
l)ury, New Zealand, on " Recent Cavern Researches in New Zealand,"
Mr.Wm. Brabrook read a communication before the Anthropological
Institute, from Mr. W.W.Wood, "On the Tombs in the Island of
Rotumah, Fiji." The finding of wooden tablets, containing hiero-

cxxxvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

glyphic writing, upon the Eastern Island is announced in the Qeo-
graphical Magazine for May.

II. ETHNOGRAPHY.

North America. The translation of Dr. Rink's " Tales and Tradi-
tions of the Esquimaux," by Dr. Brown, places the investigations of
the learned Dane within the reach of English-speaking students.
The researches of AbbS Petitot among the Tchiglit Esquimaux and
the D^nfe-Dindjie (Tinneh) Indians have been published through the
generosity of M. Pinart, as Vols. II. and JII. of his " Biblioth^que de
Linguistique."

At the American Association at Buffalo the following communica-
tions were made upon North American ethnography : " The Iroquois
Gens, Phratry, and Tribe," by Hon. L. H. Morgan ; " Hybridity and
Absorption among the Races of the New World," by Dr. Daniel
Wilson ; " The Mythology of the North American Indians," by J.
W. Powell.

Very instructive manuscripts upon the Indian tribes of the United
States have been sent in with the Centennial collections, by J. G. Swan,
Rev. M. Eels, Stephen Powers, Rev. Stephen Bowers, Major J.W.
Powell, and others. These will appear, from time to time, among
the publications of the Smithsonian Institution. In Das Ausland for
May 29th, Ado Hunnius gives a full statistical report of the Indians
of the United States, drawn from official sources.

Middle America. Professor W. M. Gabb, in a communication al-
ready referred to, and published in the Transactions of the American
Philosophical Society, June to December, 1875, gives an elaborate
account of the Indian tribes and language of Costa Rica. There is
scarcely a topic in Herbert Spencer's " Descriptive Sociology " that
is not treated in this paper.

"The Anthropology of the Antilles" is the subject of a paper, by
M. Cornilhac, in the first volume of the Proceedings of the Soci^te
des Americanistes.

South America. The Smithsonian Institution is in receipt of a
manuscript from Lieutenant Harrison describing the natives along
the Ucayali River, in Peru.

Wm. Gifford Palgrave, the author of a charming book of travels
in Arabia, publishes, through Macmillan & Co., an account of a jour-
ney to Dutch Guiana.

Professor Hartt has found time to gather into a small pamphlet,
published at Rio Janeiro, a collection of Amazonian tortoise myths.

In the November (1875) Bulletin of the Society de Geographic, M.
Maguins gives an account of a visit to Tierra del Fuego. The Revue
Scientijique describes an expedition to Patagonia by Dr. Carl Berg.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. cxxxvii

Europe. Mr. E. W. Brabrook read before the Anthropological In-
stitute, February 22d, a memoir by the Rev. J. Earle upon the " Eth-
nography of Scotland." The chief feature of the communication
was the com])arison of the physiognomy and dialects of the Scotch
with those of the Norwegians. The same subject was discussed by
Hector McLean at the British Association, September 16th. Lady
Verny contributes to the Contemporary Heview for February an essay
on " Old Welsh Legends and Poetry."

The communication, by Gustavus Lagneau^ read before the Geo-
graphical Congress in Paris last year, is published in full in Revue
(VAnthropologie, No. 4, 1875, with copious bibliographical references.

The Basques are the subject of the following treatises: A paper
read before the French Association, 1876, by M. Tubino ; an article in
Revue de Linguistique^ October, 1855, by the Rev.Wentworth Web-
ster; a notice in Bui. de la Soc. de Geog.., April, by V. Derrecagaix.

No. 3 of Revue d^Anthropologie contains a very elaborate paper, by
Dr. A. Sasse, upon eighteen skulls which the author procured from
an ossuary in Righ, a village in the north of Holland.

In the July number of the North American Review, Mr. T. F. Crane
treats of the Italian popular tales.

M. Mainof, Secretary of the Ethnological Section of the Russian
Geographical Society, is preparing an exhaustive treatise on Russian
ethnography. It will appear in parts, each containing the mono-
graph of a section of the people.

The Society of Anthropology of Paris offers a prize to the author
of the best memoir on " The Slavic Races," to be accompanied by
maps of the countries inhabited by Slavonians. Further contribu-
tions to Slavic subjects are : A paper read before the Royal Society
of Literature, by Rev. J. Long, upon "Russian Proverbs as illustrating
Russian Life and Manners;" a communication upon the Slaves, to
the French Association, by M. Hovelacque ; an article in the April
number of the Contemporary Review, by W. S. Ralston, on " Russian
Idyls." The October number of the Geograpliiml Magazine is devoted
largely to the Turkish question. Maps are given, showing the po-
litical divisions, the density of population, the distribution of the
Mohammedans, and the other nationalities. Dr. Nicolo J. Petrovitsch
contributes to Bas Ausland, June 19th, an article on "Manners and
Customs in Servia;" E. Picot, to Revue d^Anthropologie, No. 3, 1875,
a paper on the Roumanians ; and Jos. Jirecek publishes, in Prague,
" The History of the Bulgarians."

Africa. In speaking of the megalithic monuments of Africa, ref-
erence was made to the blonde population of Morocco (Revue d'An-
thropologie, No. 3, 1876). The novel opinions of M. Broca are well
worth careful investigation.

Further information of African subjects is to be found in Mr. B.

cxxxviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

Walker's paper before the Anthropological Institute on the " Re-
ligion, Politics, and Commerce of the Old Calabar Coast ;" in M.
Hovelacque's article in Revue cVAnthrojyologie^ No. 3, on the " Caflfres ;"
in Dr. B. Ferrand's contribution to the third part of the same journal
on the " Oulofs of Senegambia ;" in Captain Cameron's speeches be-
fore the Geographical Society, April 11th, the Anthropological In-
stitute, May 23d, and at the British Association ; in Dr. Hartmann's
work on the " Nigritians," published in Berlin ; in Dr. Mullen's pa-
per in the Jour. Anth. Inst.,Y., 181, on the "Origin and Progress
of the People of Madagascar ;" and in No. 4 of Herbert Spencer's
" Descriptive Sociology."

Asia. M. Ujfalvy has been intrusted by the French Minister of
Instruction with the preparation of a work on the ethnographical,
linguistic, and historical characteristics of the people of Russia and
Central Asia. VExj^hrateur, of May 18th, contains an account of
the principal indigenous tribes of Eastern Siberia, from "La Siberie
Orientale, et I'AmSrique Russe," of M. Octave Sachat. At a meeting
of the Ethnological Section of the Russian Geographical Society,
May 13th, M. Venioukoff's recommendation to publish a catalogue
of all books and articles relating to Higher Asia and its inhabitants
was adopted.

Messrs. Sampson & Low publish a translation of Lieutenant Pre-
jevalsky's " Mongolia," with an introduction by Colonel Henry Yule.
The lieutenant will conduct to Central Asia a party, to be gone three
years. Ethnological investigations will be a prominent feature of
their work.

In the British Quarterly^ Jan., 1876, is an article on the " Dervishes
of Islam," attempting to compare them with the prophets of the Old
Testament.

Mr. Alfred Morgan read a paper before the Philosophical and Lit-
erary Society of Liverpool, January 10th, on the Khasi Hill Tribes
of Northeastern Bengal. In the Jour. Anth. Inst, for April, Mr. J. Wal-
house describes the Bhutas devil and ghost worshipers in India.
Professor Childers, in Contemp. Revieio for April, has an article en-
titled " The Whole Duty of the Buddhist Layman."

Maisonneuve &> Co., Paris, have published for C. A. Pi^trement a
pamphlet upon the origin of the Chinese, and the introduction of
the horse into China. The Argonaut., for July 1st, has an article on
the " Amusements of the Chinese."

In the Jour. Anth. Inst, for July, Mr. E. B, Tylor discusses the myths
of the Japanese.

Oceanica. The attention of European anthropologists is turned
especially to New Guinea. Articles on this subject may be found
under the following references: Archiv fur Ajith., May ; Edbiburgh

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 187G. cxxxix

Reoieic, July ; Proceedings of the Geograi^hical Society^ June, p. 253, 266 ;
Jour. Anth. Inst., April 25th and June 13th ; Nature., Dec. 25th, 1875,
Jan. 20th, March 9th, June 1st and 8th, 1876 ; Academy, Feb. 19th.

In the Jour. Anth. List, for April, Mr. James Hector speaks of" Cer-
tain Early Forms of Stone Implements in New Zealand." The Rev.
Wyatt Gill has, during the year, presented to the Anthropological
Institute papers on " The Traditions of the Hervey Islanders," " The
Origin of the South Sea Islanders," and " The South Sea Island
Mythology." The last-named article is reviewed at length in the
London Quarterly Review for July. The Rev. S. J. Whitmee, in Nature.,
June 29th, makes some sound observations on the errors which have
been made in estimating the population of a countiy by the census
of the sea-coast. Mr. Rankin contributes to the Jour. Anth. Inst, for
July information upon the South Sea Islanders. Professor Busk has
examined skulls from the Hebrides, some of which show signs of
artificial compression {Antli. //isf,, June 13th). Peschel's " Volker-
kunde" has appeared in an English translation, published by D. Ap-
pleton & Co., and supplies a felt w^ant of a compendious work on
the whole field of anthropology.

III. DEDUCTIVE ANTHROPOLOGY.

1. Origin and Antiquity of Man. The Quarterly Journal of Science
for October contains an article upon the " Cradle of Civilization."
"The Origin and Development of Man," is the title of a critique on
Lubbock, Tylor, Lyell, and Huxley, in the Westminster Remeio for
January. Mr. A. R.Wallace, in opening the Anthropological Section
of the British Association, was pleased to speak in the highest terms
of the theory of Mr. Darwin in its application to man, but also to
enumerate some of the difficulties which still stand in the way of its
total recognition. On the other hand, Dr. Ernst Haeckel takes the
broad ground that, from beginning to end, all animated creation is
the fruit of " transmission and adaptation." Professor Flower took
the occasion of his Hunterian lecture on the "Relation of Extinct to
Existing Mammalia " to speak of the geological origin of man. Mr.
Frank Clarkson spoke on the "Antiquity of Man" before the Junior
Philosophical Society, June 19th. In Mem. de la Soc. d''midation
des Cotes -du-Nord, M.Victor Micault discusses the various time-
measures furnished by geology for ascertaining the antiquity of man.

2. Anatomical and Physiological Investigations. The study of cra-
nio-cerebral topography promises to place phrenological research-
es on a new basis. The subject as treated by Gratiolet, Bischofi^,
Hunter, Ecker, Heftier, Fere, and others is fully reviewed, with il-
lustrations, by Dr. Paul Broca, in Revue d' Antliroiwlogie, No. 2, 1876.
The author also gives his own views in extenso. The value of tlie
"Orbital Index" is treated in the same journal, No. 4, 1876. Dr.
Ecker, in discussing the fluctuating character of the human hand

Cxl GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

{ArcMv,Ylll.), calls attention to tlie length of the fore- and the ring-
finger. Dr. Kuhf, in Bevue (V Anthropologie^ No. 3, reviews J. W. Spren-
gel's " Schadel vom Neanderthal-Typus," and contributes also some
notes on prehistoric femurs. Dr. R.Verneau, Paris, is the author of a
pamphlet entitled " Le Bassin dans les Sexes et dans les Races " {Rev.
d'Anth.^ No. 3, 1876). Dr. Schmidt, of Essen, contributes to the first
quarter oiArchiv a very elaborate paper upon the true horizontal of
the skull. In the same number Dr. A. Ecker discusses the influence
of cranial deformation upon the volume, position, and form of the
cerebrum and its single parts. Dr. Daniel Wilson read a paper be-
fore the American Association on " Brain Weight and Size in Rela-
tion to the Relative Capacity of Races." The subject of the anthro-
pology of idiots is discussed in Archiv fur Anth.^ IV., 317. A paper
on "Right-handedness" was read before the British Association by
Mr. James Shaw. Professor Virchow, in Ahhmidl. der Konigl. Akad.
zu Berlin^ considers some characteristics of the skulls of the lower
races of mankind.

3. External Characters. The Jour. Anth. Institute reproduces, with
plates, the article of Dr. Pruner Bey (Anth. Bev., II., 1864) on " Human
Hair as a Race Character." The treatise will well repay a second
reading to those who have not had the benefit of the plates.

4. Comparative Psychology. The Quarterly Journal of Science pub-
lishes an article, by G. J. Romanes, on " Conscience in Animals."
The subject of mental progress of animals during the human period
was discussed by Mr. James Shaw before the British Association.
Articles entitled " Associationism and the Origin of Moral Ideas,"
and " Evolution in Ethics," are published in Mind for July 1, 1876.
Professor Barret read before the British Association a paper on
'' Some Phenomena associated with Abnormal Conditions of the
Mind." A warm discussion ensued, in which there was a lack of
" philosophic calmness." Professor Paul Mantegazza contributes to
Archivio a long and studied essay on the " Expression of Grief."

5. Sex and Bace. In A^island^ for June 19th, Dr. Escherich dis-
cusses the numerical relations of the sexes in Prussia, Bavaria, and
Wiirtemberg. In all cases and the reasons are assigned there is
a preponderance of women over men. Before the London Institu-
tion, March 28d, Mr. E. B.Tylor read a communication on the " Races
of Mankind and their Civilization."

6. Environment. The influence of geological phenomena upon
human migrations was discussed by M. Roujou in a communication
to the French Association. Ferd. F. von Andrau treats of the influ-
ence of elevation upon human settlements in the Mittheil. der Anth.
Gesellsch., in Wien, 1 and 2. M. Paul Bert's treatise on the " Pressure
of the Air and Living Beings " is reviewed in Bev. Sc., July 15th, and
in Bev. d''Anth.^ No. 2. In the last-named journal, No. 3, M. A, Morice
discusses the " Acclimation of Races of Men and Animals in Lower

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. cxli

Cochin China." Ausland, May 29th, reviews Rutimeyer's " Varia-
tions of the Animal Kingdom in Switzerland since the Presence of
Man there." The Smithsonian Report for 1875 reproduces De Can-
dolle's " Probable Future of the Human Race," from " History of
Science and Savans."

IV. CULTURE.

1. Comprehensive Treatises. The Westminster Review for July criti-
cises the works of Lubbock and Southall on the early phases of civ-
ilization.

2. Food. On this subject we notice Dr. M. J. Schleiden on the
" History, Uses, and Symbolism of Salt."

3. Dwellings and other Constructions. Vicomte F. de Langle con-
tributes to the Bull. Soc. de Oeog., June, 1876, an essay on " Monuments
Megalithiques."

4. Vessels and Household Utensils. In Ausland, June 10th, will be
found an interesting paper on the early use of pot -stone {Lapis
ollaris).

5. Lnpilements of War, the Chase, and Industry. Mr. Alfred W.How-
itt, writing from Baimsdale, Victoria, to Nature, July 20th, minutely
describes his experience with the boomerang. Professor George
Fischer, of Stuttgart, has published a work on "Nephrite and Jade-
ite in their Mineralogical Character, and in their Prehistoric and
Ethnographical Relation" {Corr.-Blatt., No. 12, 1875). In Nos. 10
and 11 of Materiaux for 1875, M. Mortillet contends for the East
Indian origin of bronze. Madame Clemence contributes to Revue
d'Anth. one of her characteristic jjapers on " Fire among Primitive
Peoples." Dr. Biichner writes in Gaea (III., 1876) uj)on the kindred
subject, "Die Aeltesten Feuerzeuge."

6. Domestication. Upon the history of the horse attention is called
to M. C. A. Pietrement's publications in Paris. M. Hovelacque has
published at Paris also a treatise on the " Dog in the Avesta."

7. Valuing and Measuring. A communication to the London Phil-
osophical Society, March 22d, treated of " Coinage in Ancient and
Modern Times."

8. Music. Professor Carl Engel's descriptive catalogue of the
musical instruments in the South Kensington Museum is prefaced
by an essay upon the history of musical apparatus.

9. Art. Upon this subject the following treatises have come before
us: " Artes Africanse," by Dr. George Schweinfurth ; "The Artistic
Skill of the Africans," Ausland, Nov. and Dec, 1875; "Analysis of
the Life Form in Art," Trans. Am. Phil. Soc, 1875 ; " Vorgeschichte
der Kunst," Dr. O. Hostiusky, Ausland, June 24th, 1876 ; " L'Art et
ses Progr^s depuis I'Antiquitg," fimile Soldi, Paris, 1876 ; " A Man-
ual of the Historical Development of Art," G. G. Zerffi, London.

10. Language. The two volumes of Abb6 P^titot, previously re-

cxlii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

ferred to, must be recalled here. M. Coudereau is the author of a
very elaborate paper in Bull. Soc. d^Anth.,l^o. 3, 1875, entitled "Essai
de Classification des Bruits Articules," Attention is called to Rev. A.
H. Sayce's review of Hovelacque, Nature., Aug. 10th ; "Language and
Race," Jour. Anth. Inst., V., II., 212 ; " The Jelly-fish Theory of Lan-
guage," Contemp. Bev.., April, 1876 ; and " The Introduction to the
Science of Language." Mr. Hyde Clarke contributes to the Jour.
Anth. Inst, interesting f)af)ers on prehistoric language {Nature, May
25th ; Athenamm, Aug. 5th) ; The Fifth Annual Address of the Rev.
Richard Morris before the London Philological Society, May 19th, is
an admirable summary in this special field. The author had the aid
of Dr. J. Muir and Professor Eggeling on Sanskrit ; of Ujfalvy on the
Ugro-Fiunish ; of Dr. Neubauer on Talmudical and Rabbinical Liter-
ature ; of the Rev. A. H. Sayce on the Etruscan ; of R. N. Cust on the
Non-Aryan Languages of India ; of Dr. J. H. Trumbull on N. A. In-
dian Languages ; of Edouard Naville on the Egyptian ; and of Dr.
Kolbing on Teutonic Languages.

11. The Family. "La Famiglia e la Societa negli Animali e nell'
uomo " is the name of an article in Rivista Anth. ed Eth.

12. Social Life and Customs. The following treatises are to be no-
ticed : " La Trepanation Prehistorique," J. de Baye, Paris ; " Crema-
tion," DuUin EevieiD, No. 157 ; " Les Rites Funeraires," etc., M. Royer,
Sev. d'Anth.,1^0. 3 ; " The Last Act," Wm. Tegg, London; " Sur Tusage
des Batons de Main," F. Chabas, 1876 ; " Wege und Ziele der Oeko-
nomie," Dr. Weiss, Ausland, June 5th, 1876.

13. Religion. Our space allows us merely to call attention to the
following : M. Mortillet's address before the French Association on
the " Origin of Superstitions ;" Tide's " Law of Religious Develop-
ment," Rev. Politique, Kwg. 12th; "The Chief Non-Christian Systems
of Religion," by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge ;
Miss Buckland's paper on " Rhabdomancy and Belomancy," Jour.
Anth. Inst., April ; Dr. Wakes Smart on " The Ancient Worshij) of
Strings," Brit. Arch. Assoc. ; Dr. Collin eau on " Religious Mania,"
Bull. Soc. d-Anth., No. 3, 1875 ; " Lucky Days," etc., Mittheil. Anth. Ges.
in Wien; " Ser^Dcnt and Siva Worship in America," Hyde Clarke,
Anth. Inst., June 27th ; " Demonolatry," etc., Gontemp. Review, Feb. ;
W. P. Distant on the " Term Religion in Anthroj^ology."

V. INSTRUMENTALITIES OF RESEARCH.

Apparatus of Observation. " Instructions Craniologiques et Cranio-
metriques," Soc. d^Anth., Paris ; " La CranioscoiDe," M. Lenhossek,
Mem. Acad. Soe., Buda-Pesth; "Zur Frage nach der Methode der
Schadelmessung," Go7T.-Blatt., I., 1876.

Terminology. Ecker, in Archiv, May, on " Prehistoric Terminol-
ogy ;" a paper by O. T. Mason, American Association, on the " Scope
of Anthropology and the Classification of its Materials." Discussions

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. cxliii

on the terms "Anthropology," "Ethnology," and "Ethnography"
in Bull. 8oc. d'Anth., Nos. 2 and 3.

Societies and Transactions. The Annual Record for 1875 contains
a full account of these. The American Anthropological Society
founded at Philadelphia, Sept. 9th, is the only addition made to the
list of societies, and Beitriige zur Anthropologie und Urgeschiclite Bay-
ems to the list of journals. The next Congress of Americanists will
meet at Luxemburg, Sept. 10tli-13th, 1877. The annual meeting of the
Indiana State Archseological Association convened at Indianopolis,
Oct. 17tli. The third session of the International Congress of Ori-
entalists was opened at St. Petersburg, Sept. 9th. The British Asso-
ciation meet in Glasgow, Sept. 6tli ; the French Association at Cler-
mont-Ferrand, Aug. 18tli-2oth; the Eighth Congress of Anthropol-
ogy, etc., met at Buda-Pesth, Sept. 4th. The annual meeting of the
German Anthropological Society was held in Jena, Aug. 9th-llth.
The American Association was held in Buffalo, Aug. 23d-30th, Hon.
Lewis H. Morgan being chairman of the Anthropological Subsec-
tion. The next meeting will be held in Nashville, Tenn., and Dr.
Daniel Wilson will preside over the Anthropological Subsection.

In conclusion, we refer our readers to Gerland's " Atlas der Eth-
nographic," Leipzig, Brockhaus, 1876 ; " Le Dictionnaire Archeolo-
gique de la Gaule," A-G, Paris; " Verzeichniss der Anthropologie
schen Literatur," H. Schaaff hausen nnd A. Ecker, Berlin ; " Nouvelle
Geographic Universelle, la Terre et les Hommes," E. Reclus, liv.
1-66; "Bibliographic de FArch^ologie Prehistorique de la Su^de
pendant le XIX Sifecle," Montelius, Stockholm, 1875 ; " Crania Eth-
nica," Quatreftiges & Hamy, liv. 1-4, Paris, 1875 ; " Thesaurus Crani-
orum," J. Barnard Davis, London.

cxliv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

GENEEAL ZOOLOGY.

L By Db. a. S. PACKARD, Jb.

A review of the work accomplislied by zoologists during the year
1876 shows no diminution in the interest felt in this subject, either
abroad or at home.

The British Arctic Expedition has returned with zoological col-
lections of great value, while the arctic expeditions of the Swedish
government, under Nordenskjold, and the Norwegian deep-sea ex-
pedition to Iceland, as well as the researches in the Rocky Mount-
ains carried on in connection with Professor Hayden's United States
Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, have been
productive of good results.

A very thorough survey of the Baltic is in progress, under the di-
rection of the German minister of agriculture. We have received
the zoological portions of the reports, which are of much interest.
They are in the same direction as the reports of our United States
Fish Commissioner, which are confined by government, as yet, chief-
ly to fisheries and fish-food.

A summer school of Biology, under the auspices of the Peabody
Academy of Science, was held at Salem, Massachusetts, with such
success that it is hoped that this institution, with its advantages for
the study of marine life, may lead to the establishment at this point
of a zoological station for naturalists as well as science-teachers. In
Germany they are agitating the establishment of a new zoological
station at Kiel and Heligoland, while others have been started at
Trieste and Sebastopol, and there is a plan to erect a Russian sta-
tion on the White Sea. The small station at Roscofi", on the coast
of Normandy, France, established by Professor Lacaze-Duthiers, is
still useful ; while Dr. Anton Dohm's magnificent establishment at
Naples, the parent of all these enterprises, has afforded special facili-
ties to some of the leading observers of Europe ; and, while it has
been a costly undertaking. Dr. Dohrn writes that " there is well-
founded hope that the Naples station will soon be free from such
embarrassments as are the consequences of insufficient means," since
the German government will probably grant five or six thousand
dollars to its maintenance.

Articles on progress in American zoology during the past century
have been 2:)ublished in Hari^efs Magazine^ by Professor T. Gill, and
in the American Naturalist^ by the writer.

Professor E. S. Morse's discourse, as President of Section B, Geology
and Biology, of the American Association for the Advancement of

INDUSTRIAL PKOGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. cxlv

Science, was on the contributions made to the theory of Evolution
by American naturalists.

In his late address before the section of Biology of the British As-
sociation, Mr. Alfred R. Wallace remarked on the peculiar relations
of plants and insects as exhibited on islands. As many plants can
only be fertilized by insects, the absence of the latter would, of
course, tend to prevent the continued existence of jDlants. This af-
fords a clew to much of the peculiarity of the floras of oceanic isl-
ands. Albatrosses, gulls, puffins, tropic birds, and many others nest
inland, often amid dense vegetation ; and it is thought that they
often carry seeds, attached to their feathers, from island to island,
for great distances. In the tropics they often nest on the mountains,
far inland, and may thus aid in tlie distribution even of mountain
plants. Insects, on the other hand, are mostly conveyed by currents
of air, especially by violent gales ; and it may thus often happen
that totally unrelated plants and insects may be brought together,
in which case the former must often perish for want of suitable in-
sects to fertilize them. Much of the poverty and exceptional distri-
bution of the plants of the Polynesian Islands is probably due to
the great scarcity of flower-frequenting insects. Lepidoptera and
Hymenoptera are exceedingly scarce in the eastern islands of the
Pacific, and it is almost certain tliat many plants which require
these insects for their fertilization have been thereby prevented
from establishing themselves. In the western islands, such as the
Fijis, several species of butterflies occur in tolerable abundance, and
no doubt some flower-haunting Hymenoj^tera accompany them ;
and in these islands the flora appears to be much more varied, and
especially to be characterized by a much greater variety of showy
flowers. Mr. Moseley has suggested that a flower which had acquired
a brilliant color to attract insects might, on transference to another
country, and becoming so modified as to be capable of self-fertiliza-
tion, retain the colored petals for an indefinite period. Such is
probably the explanation of the pelargonium of Kergueleu's Land,
which forms masses of bright color near the shore during the flower-
ing season, while most of the other plants of the island have color-
less flowers, in accordance with the almost total absence of winged
insects. " The researches of Dr. Herman Miiller have shown us by
what minute modification of structure or of function many flowers
are adapted for partial insect- and self-fertilization in varying de-
grees ; so that we have no difficulty in understanding how, as the
insects diminished and finally disappeared, self-fertilization may
have become the rule, while the large and showy corollas remain to
tell us plainly of a once different state of things."

A new work, by Mr. Alfred R. Wallace, on the geographical dis-
tribution of animals, bids fair to prove of much interest to natural-
ists, though it will aflbrd food for discussion.

7

cxlvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

The essays by Mr. J. A. Allen on the geographical distribution of
certain birds and mammals, notably the bison, and the essay by the
writer, on the distribution of the Geometrid moths, in his monograjjli
of that family, are fresh contributions to zoogeography.

In a paper on the origin of the deep-water fauna of the Lake of
Geneva, M. Forel thinks the entire fauna of the Swiss lakes is de-
scended from forms which have migrated up the rivers since the
melting of the glaciers, and have afterward been differentiated.

Among recent contributions to the general subject of the embry-
ology of animals are two by Professor E. Van Beneden, of Liege.
One is on the maturation and fecundation of the egg and earlier
embryonic phases of the mammals, from researches made on the rab-
bit, and is an extension of Bischotf' s famous work on the embryolo-
gy of the rabbit. A second i)aj)er, on the history of the germinative
vesicle, is based on studies made on the common star-fish of the
European coast {AsteracantMon rubens). A paper of a very different
sort is a fierce attack on the " gastrsea " theory, by M. Moquin-Tan-
don, in the Annales des Sciences JVaturelles. He concludes that it
does not rest on any fundamental fact, and can not serve as a base
of a phylogenetic classification. The theory had previously been
attacked in the American Naturalist for February by Mr. A. Agassiz.
On the other hand, in the April number of the same magazine.
Professor Cope, in an article entitled " Progress of Discovery of the
Laws of Evolution," welcomes Haeckel's gastroea theory, which we
have previously exf)lained. Cope says that this theory has " added
the keystone to the doctrine of evolution in his gastraea theory."

Several embryological papers of value have been published by
Balfour, who also fully indorses the gastrsea theory of Haeckel.

Some four years ago the Rev. W. H. Dalliger and Dr. Drysdale be-
gan to publish a series of papers, which have attracted much notice, on
the life-history of monads. The last is now published. The authors
remark that simple conditions of season and temperature may ac-
count for their successive appearance in the fluid, without supposing
that one fonu was developed out of another. " On the contrary, the
life-cycle of a monad is as rigidly circumscribed within defined
limits as that of a mollusk or a bird." In no instance was the con-
tinuance of the species maintained without the introduction of a
sexual process, a blending of what were shown in the sequel to be
genetic elements. The experiments as to the efifect of heat on the
monads and their spores uniformly established an important fact,
viz., that the spores resist heat much better than tlie adults. A
temperature of 150 Fahr. was always found to destroy utterly all
the adult forms, while the spores resulting from sexual generation
have a power of resistance to heat which is greater than this in the
proportion of eleven to six on the average. " This appears to us,"
they say, " to be the very essence of the question of biogenesis versus

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. cxlvii

abiogenesis. In some, at least, of the septic organisms spores are
demonstrably produced, and these spores can resist a temperature
nearly double that of adults on the average ; that which some can
resist is 88 Fahr. above the boiling-point of water." This, adds
the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science^ is in harmony with
the experiments of Roberts, and the later ones of Huizinga.

In a little book entitled '* Half- Hours with Insects," the writer
.cites a number of unpublished facts regarding mimicry in insects,
and inclines to the belief that the resemblance in pattern and color
between insects belonging to different groups is probably due to
causes more fundamental than natural and sexual selection, and
reaching possibly farther back in geological time than the present
period. The majority of mimickers of other insects belong to
groups lower in the organic scale than the insects they mimic, and
may have been preserved by virtue of their resemblance to butter-
flies originating at a later date.

In his address at the last meeting of the British A.ssociation for
the Advancement of Science, Professor Alfred Newton adverts to
the subject of the extinction of animals by natural and artificial or
human causes. " It is notorious," he says, " that various members
of the orders Sirenia^Cetacea^ and Pinnipedia have recently dwindled
in numbers, or altogether vanished from the earth. The manatee
and dugong have been recklessly killed off from hundreds of local-
ities where but a century or so since they abounded, and with them
the stores of valuable oil that they furnished have been lost. That
very remarkable Sirenian, the huge Rhytina gigas, has become utter-
ly extinct. The greed of whalers is believed to have had the same
effect on a cetacean (the Balcena Mscayensis) which was once the
cause of a flourishing industry on the coasts of France and Spain.
The same greed has almost exterminated the right-whale of the
northern seas, and is fast accomplishing the same end in the case of
seals all over the world." He also speaks of the alarming decrease
of fish and edible mollusks.

Perhaps the most remarkable biological work of the year is Pro-
fessor August Weismann's treatise on the " Final Causes of Trans-
mutation," forming the second part of his studies on the " Theory
of Descent." The first part of the work, entitled " Seasonal Dimor-
phism," was noticed on p. cxciv. of the Annual Record for 1875. The
present work is divided into three divisions, of which the first pre-
sents an array of facts on the origin of the markings of caterpillars.
The author describes the nature and morphology of the markings
of larva3 of the family Sphingidce^ their biological value, and phyletic
development, concluding that the oldest sphingid cateqDillars were
without markings, that the oldest style of markings were longitudi-
nal lines, the later ones oblique streaks, and the last to be developed
were the spots. This part of the subject is illustrated by five colored

cxlviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

plates. In the third section the transfonnation of the Mexican axo-
lotl into an Amblystoma is discussed at considerable length and
with characteristic thoroughness. Professor Weismann believes
that the Siredon or axolotl was originally derived from a land sala-
mander (AmUystorna), but has reverted to an axolotl or larval form
through the change of the climate of Mexico from a damp to an ex-
ceedingly dry one, obliging these animals, which as larvae lived in
ponds, and as adults formerly lived under trees and stones or in
damp places, to revert to the original larval siredon form and re-
main permanently amphibious. In the fourth division, " On the
Mechanical Conception of Nature," the author maintains that de-
velopment is mechanical, and that we must reject the idea of a spe-
cial life-force. Still he as strongly believes in teleology, and main-
tains the thesis that evolutional views do not lead to materialism.

II. By Db. THEODORE GILL.

One of the most important works of the year is a treatise, in two
volumes, " On the Geographical Distribution of Animals, with a
Study of the Relations of Living and Extinct Faunas, as elucidatino-
the 23ast Changes of the Earth's Surface," by Alfred Russell Wallace,
author of the " Malay Archipelago," and a co-discoverer with Dar-
win of the law of Natural Selection. This author has long been
favorably known as a geographical zoologist, and first defined the
boundaries between the Australian and Indian realms.

He divides his subject into several parts. In the first part he dis-
cusses the principles and general phenomena of the distribution un-
der chapters, (1) introductory ; (2) the means of dispersal and the
migrations of animals; (3) distribution as affected by the conditions
and changes of the earth's surface ; (4) on zoological regions ; and
(5) classification as afi"ecting the study of geographical distribution.
In the second part he discourses on the distribution of extinct ani-
mals ; and in the third part he enters into a consideration of" zoolog-
ical geography : a review of the chief forms of life in the several
regions and sub -regions, with the indications they afford of geo-
graphical mutations." In a fourth and final part he considers the
geographical zoology in a systematic sketch under the different fam-
ilies of animals in their geographical relations.

The older naturalists, says Mr. Wallace, " had a sort of vague no-
tion that certain forms were peculiar to hot climates, and that cer-
tain others w^ere only found in cold countries ; but that was about
all they knew or cared to know. Of the necessity of jDrecise knowl-
edge on the subject of locality they were absolutely incredulous.
To the modern naturalist, on the other hand, the native country, or
' habitat,' as it is technically termed, of an animal or a group of ani-
mals is a matter of the first importance, and, as regards the general
history of life upon the globe, may be considered to be one of its es-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. cxlix

sential characters. The structure, affinities, and habits of a species
now form only part of its natural histor}^ We require, also, to know
its exact range at the present day and in prehistoric times, and to
have some knowledge of its geological age, the place of its earliest
appearance on the globe, and of the various extinct forms most near-
ly allied to it. To those who accept the theory of development as
worked out by Mr. Darwin, and the views as to the general perma-
nence and immense antiquity of the great continents and oceans so
ably developed by Sir Charles Lyell, it ceases to be a matter of sur-
prise that the troj)ics of Africa, Asia, and America should differ in
their productions ; but rather that they should have any thing in
common. Their similarity, not their diversity, is the fact that most
frequently puzzles us."

The author has confined his investigations to the several classes
of vertebrates, a few prominent families of insects, and the branch
of mollusks. An analysis of his work, however, reveals that he
was chiefly influenced by the phenomena of the distribution of birds,
with which class he was evidently most familiar; with the other
classes he was apparently but imperfectly conversant. In one para-
graph (vol. i., p. 50) he discusses the question of" which class of ani-
mals is of most importance in determining zoological regions." He
arrives at the conclusion that in all essential points " the mammalia
are pre-eminent ; and they possess the additional advantage of being
the most highly developed class of organized beings, and that to
which we ourselves belong." Many naturalists, however, will be dis-
posed to dissent from him in this view; and, taking the author's
own standard of what best qualifies a group for the expression of laws
of geographical distribution, we are constrained to believe that the
inhabitants of fresh-water basins, and especially the fishes, are pre-
eminently the most truth-telling exponents of the relations of the
several regions of the globe to each other now and in the past. It
is evident, however, that, in spite of the expression of opinion of the
author, he has been influenced by the focts of geographical distribu-
tion of mammals much less than by those of birds ; and to this bias
is undoubtedly attriljutable the sequence and combinations of the
*' regions" which he has adopted. These regions are six in number,
and for them he adopts the names of his compatriot, Mr. Sclater.
The regions are divided by a procrustean system each into exactly
four sub-regions. They are as follows :

I. The Palsearctic Region, with the sub-regions (1) North America,
(2) Mediterranean (or S. Eu.), (3) Siberia, and (4) Manchuria (or
Japan).

II. The Ethiopian Region, with the sub-regions (1) East Africa,
(2) West Africa, (3) South Africa, and (4) Madagascar.

III. The Oriental Region, comprising the sub-regions of (1) Hin-
dostan (or Central Ind.), (2) Ceylon, (3) Indo-China (or Himalayas),
and (4) Indo-Malaya.

cl GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

IV. The Australian Region, embracing the sub-regions of (1) Austro-
Malaya, (2) Australia, (3) Polynesia, and (4) New Zealand.

V. The Neotropical Region, including the sub-regions of (1) Chili
(or S. Temp. Am.), (2) Brazil, (3) Mexico (or Trop. N. Am.), and (4)
Antilles.

VI. The Nearctic Region, with the sub-regions (1) California, (2)
Rocky Mountains, (3) Alleghanies (or Eastern U. S.), and (4) Canada.

This is not the place to further comment upon Mr. Wallace's views.
Suffice it to say that, although there are many errors, the work is
one of sterling value ; and will doubtless give a decided impetus to
the philosophical consideration of the phenomena of the distribution
of animal life over the earth, and its causes.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 187G. cli

INVERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY.

By Dr. A. S. PACKARD, Jr.

The Rhizopods of this country are still undergoing examination
by Professor Leidy. In sj3eaking of the Difflugian Rhizopods, Dr.
Wallich expresses the opinion that the whole are referable to a
single specific type, while Dr. Carpenter is quoted as saying that
" whether it will ever be practicable to arrange the multitudinous
forms of this group in natural assemblages, whose boundaries shall
be capable of strict limitation, is to us by no means certain." Dr.
Leidy adds that it would seem that the existing rhizopods, in re-
spect to classification, may be viewed as an epitome of all organic
forms in all times ; for, if all these could be known, it would be
found that there were no absolute limits defining species, or any
other of the usual divisions in classification. Many of the fresh-
water forms of this country are identical with those of Europe, The
Amoeba, it will be remembered, is the simplest form of rhizoiDod,
while the shelled forms are called Foraminifera, and Eozoon is sup-
posed to be one of these.

An account by Hertwig of a new acinetan infusorian {PodojjJiri/a
gemmipara) appears in the new German Journal of Anatomy and Em-
hryology, edited by Gegenbaur. After a review of the structure of
the Acinetae generally, the author speculates on the origin of these
interesting forms, and believes that the original ancestral form from
which the Acinetse and infusoria sprang was a one-celled organism
covered with cilia.

Dr. Biitschli describes the production in Podoplirya of ciliated
young, somewhat resembling those of other normal Infusoria
ciliata.

The sun-animalcule {ActinojyJirys Sol) has been observed by Mr.
Fullagar to pass through the following changes. After encysting,
having previously drawn in its spine-like " pseudopodia," it divides
into two equal-sized globes, which, after remaining separate for a
few hours, unite again, forming a smaller sphere than the original
one. It now moves about by thrusting out two or three pseudo-
podia, and then resting for a while. At times also a cloudy matter
exudes from them, out of which Amoeba-like bodies proceed, re-
sembling the forms of difterent so-called species of Amoiba. The
author asks, " What connection have they with Actinophrys Sol, be-
ing found so closely mixed up with them ?" He does not answer
the question ; but, judging from the mode of development of certain

clii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

moners described by Haeckel, the minute AmcEbse may prove to be
young ActinoiDhrys. Should these observations be confirmed, Mr.
Fullagar has, perhaps, discovered the mode of reproduction by en-
cysting and the formation of motile Amoeba-like young, which has
not yet been observed in this animalcule. He also describes the
formation of young Actinophrys by self-division. Two modes of
reproduction, then, seem to be established one by encysting and
the other by self-division. Graef had noticed previously the multi-
plication of the sun-animalcule by self-division, and Schneider had
also seen them encyst themselves in the autumn, and the small Acti-
nophrys come out of the cyst in the spring.

In sjjecial groups of animals, beginning with the lowest, we have
fresh information regarding the foraminifera, or lower shelled rlii-
zojDods. One of these animals, the Glohigerina^ has at length been
seen by the Challenger party with its " pseudopodia," or thread-like
extensions of the body, spreading out in the water. Professor Wy-
ville Thompson states that if a specimen be immediately transferred
from the tow-net to some fresh sea-water, and be examined with a
high power, the " sarcodic contents of the chambers may be seen to
exude gradually through the pores of the shell, and sjDread out un-
til they form a gelatinous fringe or border around the shell, filling
up the spaces among the roots of the spines, and rising up a little
way along their length." It will be remembered that the dead
shells of these foraminifers accumulate in such immense quantities
as to form modern chalk at great ocean dejDths.

The sponges are now recognized as a distinct sub-kingdom of an-
imals by Huxley, Macallister, and Hyatt. Their embryology has been
restudied with great thoroughness by Barrois, a French observer,
who, with F. E. Schulze, acknowledges the presence of three germ-
layers, and confirms the embry logical observations of Haeckel.

Professor Hyatt's "Revision of the North American Poriferse" is
the first installment of a series of papers on our native sponges, com-
prising considerable work done under the ausjiices of the United
States Fish Commission, as well as on specimens from the diflfer-
ent museums of the country. It is accompanied by a plate drawn
on stone, and contains remarks on foreign species.

While the sponges are thus taken from the Protozoa on the one
hand, and the Polyps on the other, and regarded as representatives
of a distinct sub-kingdom, Professor E. Van Beneden, in his elabo-
rate " Recherches sur les Dicyemides, survivants actuels d'un Em-
branchement des Mesozoaires," proposes a new sub-kingdom of
animals. In 1830 Krohn observed the presence in the liquid bath-
ing the spongy bodies (perhaps renal organs) of different species of
cephalopods certain filiform bodies, covered with vibratile cilia, and
resembling infusoria or ciliated worms. They were called Dicyema
by Kolliker, who, with others, considered them as intestinal worms.

INDUSTRIAL PKOGRESS DURING THE YEAR 187G. cliii

Van Beneden claims that they have no general body-cavity. The
body is formed (1) of a large axial, cylindrical, or fusiform cell, which
extends from the anterior extremity of the body, enlarged into a
head, to the caudal extremity ; (2) of a single row of flat cells, form-
ing around the axial cell a sort of simple pavement epithelium. All
these cells are placed in juxtaposition like the constituent elements
of a vegetable tissue. There is no trace of a homogeneous layer, of
connective tissue, of muscular fibre, of nervous elements, nor of inter-
cellular substance. There is only between the cells a homogeneous
{imissante) substance, as between epithelial cells. The axial cell is
regarded as homologous with the endoderm of the higher animals
{Metazoa). He designates as the ectodermic layer the cells surround-
ing the large single axial cell. There exists no trace of a middle
layer of cells. We discover no diflerentiated apparatus ; all the an-
imal and vegetative functions are accomplished by the activity of
the ectodermic cells and of the axial cell. On account of these char-
acteristics, Van Beneden regards these organisms as forming the type
of a new branch of the animal kingdom, which he designates Me-
sozoa.

Each species of Dicyema comprises two sorts of individuals differ-
ing externally, one (the Nematogene) producing vermiform embryos,
the other (Rhombogene) infusoriform young. The Nematogenes pro-
duce germs which undergo total segmentation assume a gastrida
condition. After the closure of the blastopore the body elongates,
the worm-like form of the adult is finally attained, and they pass
through the body-walls of the parent.

The germs of the Rhombogenes arise endogenously in special cells
lodged in the axial cell, and called " germigenes." The germ-cells
undergo segmentation, and then form small spheres which become
infusoriform embryos. The worm-like young is destined to be de-
veloped, and live in the cephalopod where it has been born, while
the infusorian-like young jDrobably performs the office of dissemi-
nating the species ; it transmits the parasite of one cephalopod to
another.

This work is also an important contribution to histology, particu-
larly to the subject of cell-divisions. Says Van Beneden : " The re-
cent researches of Auerbach, of Blitschli, of Strasburger, of Hert-
wich, and those that I have published, have established the fact that
the division of a cellule that is to say, the multiplication of the
cellular individuality is the resultant of a long series of comjjlex
phenomena, accomplished in a determinate order, and having their
seat as much in the nucleus as in the substance of the cell."

Finally, Van Beneden places in his branch of Mesozoa the hypothet-
ical Gastrceades^ which term he applies to {gastrida-Vike?) organisms
formed of two kinds of cellules, some ectodermic, others endodermic,
m which the endoderm is formed by invagination. He calls Plunu-

cliv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

lades those hypothetical mesozoa which are formed from a many-
celled sphere, constituted like a Magosphmra (Haeckel), and in which
the two cellular layers are developed by delamination. He there-
fore divides the animal kingdom into three primary groups i.e.^
the Protozoa^ the Mesozoa^ and the Metazoa.

It appears that a species of Cainpamdaria, a hydroid medusa, has
been found in Greenland by the Valorous on its return from Disco,
which is said to be identical with one found by Mr. Eaton, of the
British Transit of Venus Expedition, at Kerguelen Island ; while
the deep waters of Davis Strait afford a shell which was long since
found fossil in the newer tertiary beds of Sicily, and was supposed
to be extinct.

The animal of the coral, Millepora, was by the late Professor Agas-
siz regarded as a hydroid polyp, or je'lly-fish, rather than a true coral
polyp. Now, however, it has been shown by Mr. Moseley, of the
Challenge?' expedition, who studied the Millepora at Bermuda, that
the animal is probably a true polyp. He says that the examina-
tion of the Millepora is beset with serious difficulties ; but he ob-
served that there are large and small polyps, that both kinds have
tentacles, and appear to be four in number and to be compound.
Before this, however. General Nelson, of Bermuda, had made draw-
ings of the animal of Millepora, upon which the following comments
have been made by Professor Duncan, of London, in Nature : " It is
a satisfaction for me to be able to state that General Nelson's draw-
ings prove that Agassiz saw a part of the polyp, and that Mr. Mose-
ley's beautiful delineations, far in advance of all, testify to the cor-
rectness of my fellow-worker. I do not credit the hydroid nature
of the polyp now, any more than I did when writing the reports on
the British fossil corals, and I believe Millepora to be an Actinozoan."

The effect of certain poisons on Mednsm is described by Mr. G, J.
Romanes in the Proceedings of the Roval Societv. He states that
strychnia exerts a very marked influence upon them. " Of the spe-
cies I have met with, Cyanea cainllata is the most suitable for show-
ing the effects of this poison, from the fact that in water kept at a
constant temperature the normal pulsations of this animal are as reg-
ular as those of a heart. Shortly after a solution of strychnia has
been added to the water in which a specimen of C. capillata is con-
tained, unmistakable signs of irregularity in the pulsations of the
animal supervene. This irregularity then increases more and more,
until at last it grows into well-marked convulsions. The convul-
sions manifest themselves in the form of extreme deviations from the
rhythmical character of the normal contractions, amounting, in fact,
to nothing less than tonic spasms. It is further of importance to re-
mark that the convulsions are very plainly of a paroxysmal nature,
prolonged periods of uninterrupted convulsions being every now
and then relieved by shorter periods of repose, during which the

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 187(5. civ

medusa remains perfectly motionless in a fully expanded form. C.
capillata will live for many hours when under the influence of strych-
nia, but eventually death supervenes. The animal dies in full dias-
tole."

The Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology contains notes
and descriptions of some recent corals found by Mr. A. Agassiz at a
height of 2900 to 3000 feet above the level of the sea, at a distance
in a straight line from the Pacific Ocean of twenty miles.

That sea-urchins are sometimes viviparous, not passing through a
metamorphosis, was first shown by Philippi (1845) in a South Amer-
ican species of Hemiaster. He found young sea-urchins in a sunken
ambulacral area of the adult, and regarded them as the young of the
Hemiaster. Lately it has been discovered by Grube that the young
of Anochanus^ a genus of sea-urchins occurring in the East Indies,
live under similar conditions. During the present year Mr. A. Agas-
siz has examined some Hemiasters brought home by Dr. J. H. Kid-
der, the naturalist of the Transit of Venus Exjjedition, from Ker-
guelen Island, and finds that they are viviparous, the eggs (or the
imperfectly developed pluteus or larva) probably escaping from the
genital openings, readily finding their way into the artificial cavity
formed by the spines which conceal the presence of the sunken areas,
wdiich serve as brood cavities.

M, L. Fredericq has studied the anatomy and liistology of the
nervous and muscular system of Echini. He finds, as stated in a
communication made to the French Academy, that the pentagonal
nervous ring which surrounds the a?sophagus, and the five ambula-
cral cords which go from it, are contained within a special system of
canals which can be readily observed. The famous eye-like spots
he claims only exist in the imagination of those who invented them.
The nervous ring and the large trunks which are sent ofl;'from them
are identical in structure, and should be considered as nervous cen-
tres. The muscles are formed of very fine fibres, which are cylin-
drical, entirely smooth and homogeneous throughout, with no en-
veloping membrane. M. E. Perrier has also published {Archives de
Zoologie) researches on the circulatory system of Echini ; while, in
the ArcMv fur microslvpische Anatomie^ Professor Alexander Goette
gives the developmental history of Comatnla Mediterraiiiensis ; while
Dr. R. Teuscher describes the minute anatomy of Comatula and the
sand-stars (Ophiuridee). A new Peripatus has been found in New
Zealand by Captain F. W. Hutton, wdio calls it Peripatus Novce-Zealan-
dice. This animal is a w^orm with tracheal or respiratory tubes in
the young stages, and is thus a coiinecting link between the insects
and worms.

During the spring of the year humble-bees are in Europe infested
by great numbers of a minute worm, called by Dufour Sphcerularia
Bomhi. Says Mr. Colo, in the Journal of the Quickett Microscop-

clvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

ical Club : " The Sphserularise are not found, as is commonly the
case with the mature entozoa, in the interior of the alimentary canal.
They lie perfectly free among the viscera in the upper portion of the
abdominal cavity, and are bathed on all sides with the nutritive
fluids of the bee. They are generally more or less coiled up, and are
absolutely without motion. They have thus far only been found in
female bees. The mature female Sphaerulariae are about an inch in
length ; while the males, as they are regarded by Lubbock and oth-
ers, are very minute, being about one twentieth of an inch long, or
about ten thousand times smaller than the females. They seem to be
almost invariably attached near the head of the females. A German
observer (Schneider) believes the so-called female to be merely the en-
larged oviduct of the small worm, which he regards as the true female.

Dr. Cobbold continues, in the Proceedings of the Zoological So-
ciety, his illustrated notes on the Entozoa.

The unarmed Gephyrean worms, such as the various species of
Sipunculus, have been studied in part anatomically by H. Theel ;
while MM. Marion and Bobretzky have investigated the worms of
the Mediterranean Sea.

One of the most important discoveries in zoology of the past year
is the curious fact regarding the development of the Salpa of our
coast. Mr. W. K. Brooks finds that in this animal, which occurs on
the southern shores of New England, and swims either solitary or in
chain-like aggregations of individuals, the solitary individuals are
females, while the individuals which make ujd the chain are males.
The solitary female produces a chain of males by budding, and dis-
charges an egg into each before birth. These eggs are impregnated
while the animals composing the chain are small and sexually imma-
ture, and develop into females, which give rise to other males by
budding. After the embryo has been discharged from the body of
the male, the latter grows uj), becomes sexually mature, and dis-
charges its seminal fluid into tlie water, by means of which it is car-
ried to the eggs within the bodies of younger chains. This is quite
a difierent mode of growth from that suggested over a century ago
by the poet Chamisso.

A singular animal has been discovered, at the depth of fifty fath-
oms, by Mr. Tycho Tullberg, among the islands and fiords of the
western coast of Sweden. After giving a lengthy review of its ex-
ternal aj)pearance and anatomy, the author hesitates at present to
ofler any opinion as to the systematic position of the animal, though
he ventures the remark that the type of moUusca and that of vermes
seem both to claim Neomenia as a distant relation, the latter, perhaps,
with more right than the former. Neomenia^ however, presents con-
siderable deviations from both, in the absence of a radula, in the
structure of the alimentary canal and of the nervous system, as also
in other respects, as the form of the body and the sjoines on the skin.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. clvii

Excellent plates accompany the article, which is written in the En-
glish language.

The embryology of the mollusks has been studied by Fol, Ray-
Lankester, Rabl, Jhering, and Bobretzky ; while Professor Leydig has
23ublished, in Troschel's Archiv, an elaborate account of the shells
and tegumentary coverings of the gastropod mollusks. Rabl's paper
on the development of Uiiio^ in the Jenaisclie Zeitschrift^ is especially
noteworthy.

An interesting article on the habits of the singular fluviatile shell
lo is contributed to the American Naturalist by Dr. Lewis. They
live in the rivers of Tennessee, and are so solid and of such bright
colors that they might be mistaken for sea-shells. It seems that they
were known to the Indians before the advent of European races, as
they have been found in their graves.

The last annual report of Professor Hayden's United States Geo-
logical Survey contains an excellent account of the snails collected
in Colorado by Mr. E. Ingersoll. Six new species were collected, and
much interesting information given regarding the vertical distribu-
tion of the species found.

Besides Rabl's later paper, a very fully illustrated memoir on the
development of the fresh-water mussels {Unio and Anodontd) of Eu-
rope, by W. Flemming, had been previously published in the Pro-
ceedings of the Royal Academy of Science of Vienna for 1875. The
papers will interest American students, since these mussels so abound
in our rivers. Similar but less extended researches have been carried
on in this country by Dr. W. K. Brooks, but we believe they are as yet
unpublished.

The great work of Mr. F. B. Meek on the " Invertebrate Cretaceous
and Tertiary Fossils of the Upper Missouri " is illustrated by forty-
five plates, and treats principally of fossil mollusks. It will be indis-
I^ensable to the geologist of the far "West, as the different divisions
of the cretaceous and tertiary ages were originally established by
the invertebrate remains therein described, and it therefore forms the
basis of our knowledge of the two most important formations in the
West.

A large volume on the fauna of the land and fresh-water shells
of Northeastern Africa, by Carl F. Jickeli, has recently appeared. A
number of forms, reaching as far south as Zanzibar, are included.
The work is accompanied by eleven excellent plates. Though bear-
ing date 1874, it has only recently been received in this country.

Dr. W. K. Brooks, in a paper entitled " Afiinity of the MoUusca
and MoUuscoida " (polyzoa and brachiopods), suggests that the tuni-
cates are not mollusks, and that the polyzoa and brachiopods are
derived from the worms. He also, as others have suggested, thinks
that the mollusks are also derived from the worms. He believes
that the polyzoa originated from a type like the brachiopods. Thus

civlii GENERAL SUMMAEY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

it would seem, he says, " not only that the mollusca and mollnscoida
(polyzoa and brachiopods) are related, but that they are connected
so closely that the advisability of such a division is very doubtful."
He does not believe that the lamellibranchs are typical moUusks, but
that the gasteropods should be considered so, and that the lamelli-
branchs are derivations from them.

Dr. Rabl gives an account of the embryological development of
certain pond snails belonging to the genera Lymnmus, Physa, Planor-
his^ and Ancylns. These investigations are of interest from the clear-
ness with which the " gastrula" stage is jDresentedin Lymnmis ovattis,
the same phase ("invaginate gastrula") being much more obscurely
marked in Lymnceiis stagnalis, as observed by Ray-Lankester. It ap-
pears that all the fresh-water pulmonates whose development has
thus far been observed have the same general mode of growth.

The mode of development of the garden snails of Europe {Helix
pomatia and H. nemoralis) is discussed in an elaborate manner by
Dr. Hermann von Jhering, so that now we have tolerably full knowl-
edge of the mode of growth of the land and fresh-water snails.

M. Gerbe finds that oysters are fitted for reproduction from the
first year of their life. Among these precocious mothers there are
some whose shell, in transverse diameter, measures hardly twenty-five
millimeters. Hence the prosperity of the reproducing portion of a nat-
ural oyster-bed does not depend only on the jDresence of large oys-
ters. The quantity of eggs, indeed, is generally in proportion to the
size of the oyster. Many oysters, especially the young, propagate
twice in the season, under favorable conditions. The laying of eggs
occurs at long intervals, possibly corresponding to lunar phases.

Within two years many important works on shells and shell-fish
have been published in Europe ; while in this country it would ap-
pear as if our conchologists were resting on their oars. The deform-
ities of mollusks and their shells have formed the subject of a work
by Clessin. He divides the subject into three categories : (1) Mon-
strosities, being changes in shape of considerable amount, limited to
the animal ; (2) modifications in the shell caused by aftections of the
living organs from without; and (3) anomalies in shells caused by
mechanical injuries, not affecting the animal.

An elaborate memoir, by Professor Steenstrup, on the cuttle-fishes,
with a description, accompanied by beautiful plates, of a new form
(Hemisepius), appears in the Memoirs of the Royal Danish Academy.
This singular short cuttle-fish was discovered at Table Bay, CajDC of
Good Hope,

The shells collected by Dr. Kidder, naturalist of the Transit of
Venus Expedition, at Kerguelen Land, have been, according to the
American jSfaturalist^ worked up by Mr. W. H. Dall, who describes
three new genera. One of these was described in England under
the name Eatonia; but as this name was long since preoccupied by

INDUSTRIAL TROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. clix

Professor Hall for a genus of brachiopods, the name Eatoniella is
substituted. Mr. Dall also describes a genus allied to Cerojms of the
Carditidce, giving it the name Kidderia^ in honor of the naturalist of
the expedition. A new genus of chitons is described by Dr. P. P.
Carpenter under the name Hemiarthrum.

Mr. W. H. Dall describes the way in which the eggs are set free
from the ovisac and cavity of the body of the limpets, in which no
opening could be found. The minute size and fragility of all the
parts was one obstacle. Not long ago, however, Mr. Dall had an
opportunity to dissect several limpets of extraordinary size which
Professor Agassiz brought home from the Hassler expedition, and
found one in which the ovaries were full of eggs. He has observed
that those eggs which lay at the extremities of the ovisac nearest
the renal sacs were granulated, congested, and much riper than
the rest, and that very minute orifices allowed of communicntion be-
tween the ovisac and the renal sac. Further examination showed
still riper eggs in the renal sac itself, and, as it were, drifting to-
ward the external opening, through which they passed into the
sea-water.

The Academy of Sciences has received from M. P. Fischer a paper
on the hypsometric distribution of mollusca that is, the altitudes at
which they are found. It is a striking fact, says Galignani, that
plants thrive on mountains with great regularity, each at a certain
height. Every species has its peculiar habitat, and if the mount-
ain exceeds 8000 or 9000 feet, vegetable life gradually disappears
near the summit. The terrestrial mollusca, being unprovided w^ith
means of locomotion enjoyed by birds and insects, and being, more-
over, dependent upon vegetable life for food, could not, our author
thinks, fail to be distributed in the same way as plants, and this
supposition is confirmed by observation. Each species extends to
an altitude the limits of which it does not overstep. ]M. Fischer has
verified this in the Central Pyrenees as well as in the Alps, and di-
vided the altitudes into five zones, comprised between 1500 and 7500
feet. Each zone is distinguished by the name of a species of Helix.
Thus in the Pyrenees the first zone, ending at a height of 3000 feet,
is called that of Helix carthusiana; the second, ending at 3600 feet,
H. mperm; the tliird, terminating at 4500 feet, H. limhata; the fourth,
limited at GOOO feet, H. nemoralis; and the fifth, ending at 7500 feet,
//. carascalensis. In the Alps, at the same altitudes, the names of the
zones are respectively Helix cartJitisiana, ohvoluta, Fontenelli^ sylvatica,
and glncialis. A few individual mollusks may, indeed, climb as high as
9000 feet, but they will stop at the limit of perpetual snow. Various
genera of fluviatile molUisks do not ascend higher tlian 3000 feet a
circumstance of some importance to geologists, since it proves that
in the quaternary beds the fossiliferous strata containing those gen-
era, such as Neritifia, etc., were deposited at small altitudes.

clx GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

Many fish are afflicted by crustaceoiis parasites, called Argiilus,
which adhere to the gills. Dr. Clans has recently published an
elaborate description of the variable form known as Argulus foliaceus.
It is a jDarasite on a great variety of fishes, also on toads and tad-
poles, and even on the axolotl or larval salamander.

The habits and nature of the limbs of trilobites is a matter about
which there is much difierence of opinion among naturalists. Some
consider that they had broad, leaf-like swimming aj^pendages ; while
others think they were like the modern Scrolls, a sowbug-like form;
and others compare them to the horseshoe crab, which both burrows
and swims, walking through the mud, and at times swimming on its
back, by means of its broad, leaf-like, abdominal feet. As a contribu-
tion of some value to this subject is a paper by Mr. C. D. Walcott,
printed in the Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, for-
merly the Lyceum of Natural History. His observations, based on
the examination of 1160 specimens, lead him to believe, with Bur-
meister, that they swam on their backs, as out of 1160 specimens
1110 lay on their backs. The author seems to agree with the follow-
ing conclusions, reached by Burmeister : (1) that these animals moved
only by swimming, that they remained close beneath the surface of
the water, and that they certainly did not creep about at the bot-
tom ; (2) that they swam in an inverted position, the belly upward,
the back downward, and that they made use of their power of rolling
themselves into a ball as a defense against attacks from above ; and
(3) that they most probably did not inhabit the open seas, but the
vicinities of coasts, in shallow water, and that they here lived gre-
gariously, in vast numbers.

The reproductive organs of the decapod Crustacea have been stud-
ied afresh by M. Brocchi, who concludes that neither the position
nor the form of the genital orifices can furnish characters for classi-
fying the macrourous forms (lobsters and shrimps), while in the crabs
they are, with the external organs, of value for distinguishing fami-
lies and species. References are made to M'orks on this subject by
the American naturalists Stimpson and Ordway.

The volume on parasitic animals, by Professor Van Beneden, lately
2^ublished, will introduce our readers to the subject of commensalism.
A new example is given by Dr. Streets in the American Naturalist^
in the case of a crab found living in the cloacal dilatation of the
alimentary canal of a sea-cucumber or holothurian living among the
islands of the Pacific Ocean. The crab belongs to the fiimily Por-
tunidce, or swimming-crabs, though an aberrant form. It is not only
a new species, but, with another species found by Dana at the Fiji
Islands, forms the type of a new genus.

It has been asserted by Bell, contrary to the supposition of Vaughan-
Thompson, that the young of the land-crabs, like the lobster and
crawfish, have the same form when hatched as their parents. The

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. clxi

late Dr. Sulim, of the Challenger expedition, however, found some
eggs of a land-crab belonging to the genus Cardiosoma containing
young ones which " w^ere not like their mother, but zoeiis." It is
probable that the larva3, called zoece, leave the mother, and lead a
pelagic life until they have undergone all their wonderful metamor-
phoses.

Some facts regarding the habits in confinement of the blind craw^-
fish of the Mammoth Cave, and the restoration of lost jDarts, are given
by Mr. F. W. Putnam in the Proceedings of the Boston Society of
Natural Histor3^

The classifications of the Scorpions have been revised by Professor
T. Thorell, his arrangement being based on that of Peters. It seems
that there are about ninety species of scorpions in existence.

Ascending to the insects, besides many pajjcrs describing new
forms by leading American and European entomologists, we would
call special attention to certain new general discoveries.

The embryology of the flea, Pulex fells, has been studied anew
by Balbiani. So far as the long abstract published of his work is
concerned, no mention is made of an essay on this subject, illus-
trated with numerous figures, by the writer, published in 1872 in
the Memoirs of the Peabody Academy of Science, wherein a number
of facts supposed by Balbiani to be new are mentioned.

The embryo of the white ant {Calotermes) has for the first time
been figured by Fritz Milller in the Jena Journal of Science. From
this sino-le figure it would seem that the white ant is similar in its
mode of development to other insects, especially the dragon-flies.

Papers on the fossil insects of Colorado and Nova Scotia have
appeared from the pen of Mr. Scudder, and several new European
fossil insects have been described in foi'eign journals. Mr. Scudder
calls attention in the Geological 3Iagazine to the " constant discov-
ery of close relationship between the ancient forms of insect -life
in Europe and America, which Mr. Woodward has been one of the
most conspicuous in pointing out." A list of described orthopterous
American insects from the Carboniferous formation, by Mr. Scudder,
appears in the same connection.

We have already referred to Weismann's remarkable paper on
seasonal dimorphism, and to the fact that important data regarding
the varieties of Papilio Ajax of this country w^ere afforded by Mr. W.
H. Edwards, the author of the beautiful work on buttei-flies now be-
ing published in this country. Further experiments are detailed in
the Canadian Entomologist for December, which has just appeared.
Mr. Edw^ards' paper will prove exceedingly interesting. He sub-
jected a large number of chrysalids of what would have produced
the variety Marcellus to severe cold in an ice-house, and found that
the cold completely changed a part of them to Telamonides. He re-
gards the variety Telamonides as the primary form of the si^ccies. We

clxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

thus have in this and similar experiments examples of the artificial
breeding of different varieties of insects at will, and it is not impos-
sible that results of a practical nature may follow when applied to
some of our injurious species.

The relation of bees to flowers is discussed by Hermann Miiller in
a paper translated in Nature. He calls attention to the interesting
facts presented by various groups of Ilymenojitera^ in which occur a
series of forms presenting more and more complex life relations, ac-
companied by a higher and higher mental organization. The con-
sideration of these gradations is calculated to throw much light on
the question, " How has the honey-bee acquired its remarkable in-
stincts ?" a question which the study of that species alone would,
in his oiDinion, do little to solve, but on which the habits and organ-
ization of the lower group throw much light. Dr. Miiller, after giv-
ing the evolutional history of the sting of the wasf), tracing it up
from the ovipositor of the ichneumon-fly and saw-fly, thinks that the
various acts by which the solitary wasps protect their young must
have at first been arrived at with a consciousness of the object to be
effected, but that they have gradually become instinctive, and are
now unconsciously inherited from generation to generation. " Still
it is," he observes, " impossible to watch a wasp at work without
feeling that, with these inherited customs or so-called instinct, much
individual effort also comes into play."

Mr. Riley's eighth report on the noxious and beneficial insects of
Missouri contains much valuable information regarding the common
and more injurious insects of the Western States, particularly the
Colorado potato-beetle, canker-worm, army-worm, the Rocky Mount-
ain locust, and the grape phylloxera. Public attention is annually
turned to these destructive pests ; and the careful studies of Mr.
Riley, set forth in clear, forcible language, will do much toward en-
lightening the agricultural mind. If the other states were as intel-
ligent and liberal in providing for the publication of such reports,
co-operation could be secured between the inhabitants of ditferent
states, and the more injurious insects combated and held at bay.

Among other new entomological tracts are Baron Osten-Sacken's
"Prodrome of a Monograph of the Tabanidse of the United States,"
in which it is stated that there are 102 species of horse-fly (Tabanus)
in America north of Mexico, of which twenty are new to science.

Mr. Scudder publishes in the Bulletin of the Buff"alo Society of
Sciences the second part of his synonymic list of the butterflies of
North America, and in the Canadian Naturalist figures and describes
the hind body of the larva of a dragon-fly and a part of the wing
of a cockroach from the carboniferous formation of Cape Breton.

Dr. Hagen describes some curious insect deformities, such as but-
tei-flies with caterpillar heads, etc., in the Memoirs of the Museum
of Comparative Zoology.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. clxiii

The young or larva3 of certain cave beetles from the Mammoth and
adjoining caves are figured and briefly described by Dr. Packard in
the American Naturalist for May. It appears that the young as well
as the adult beetles are blind, otherwise they do not difler much
from the young of allied genera. The beetles are Adelops and
AnopJitJialmus. Besides these, a blind coleopterous larva belonging
to an unknown species was discovered in the Carter caves in Eastern
Kentucky. Remarks are also made on the degree of variation in
these cave insects, which seems due more to varying means of sub-
sistence than any other cause. The amount of variation, however,
is very slight.

It has been found that certain Australian moths are capable of
puncturing orange - skins by means of their proboscis or spiral
tongue. It seems that the ends of the two halves of the tongue are
stiff and barbed, and present on the under side three parts of the
thread of a screw, while their sides on the upper surface are covered
with short spines, springing from a depression, with sharp, hard
sides. The object of these spines is to tear the cells and the pulp
of the orange, as a rasp opens those of beet - root, to extract the
sugar.

A writer in the American Naturalist notices an interesting instance
of intelligence in the hawk-moth (Sphinx). While watching the
sudden unfolding of the flowers of the Oenothera LamarMana^ he
observed that the hawk- moths never visited the same flower twice,
even when frightened away by some motion made b}^ the observer.
On returning, they would go only to those flowers that had opened
during their absence or that had not been visited before their flight.

In the fifth Bulletin of Hayden's United States Geological Survey
of the Territories is a list of the bugs (Hemiptera) of the region west
of the Mississippi River by Mr. Uhler, who has for so many years
devoted himself to these insects. A number of new forms are de-
scribed. The article is made still more useful by the addition of
three excellent plates.

Professor StoU, of Stockholm, has published an extensive work on
the hemipterous insects of the world, one half of the work relating
to those of North and South America.

Professor Riley's " Notes on the Yucca Borer " {Megathymus yxiccci)^
reprinted from the Transactions of the Academy of Science of St.
Louis, is an interesting account, well illustrated, of a butterfly which
bores into the root, tunneling it for most of its length. The insect
is suflRciently common in the Gulf States to be sometimes found in
every third plant over extended regions, its work rendering the yuc-
ca worthless as a hedge plant.

The geometrid moths, numbering in the United States some four
hundred species already known, have been monographed by the
writer, in a quarto work of over six hundred pages, with tliirtecn

clxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

jDlates, forming Vol. X. of Hayden's reports of the United States
Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories. The de-
scriptive portion is preceded by chapters on the anatomy of the
head and thorax, on secondary sexual characters, etc:, while the
volume closes with an essay on the geographical distribution of
the species in this country.

It is generally supposed that, while the tropics abound in large,
strong insects, there are not so many kinds like those of temperate
regions small and of modest colors. It appears, however, that the
number of small forms is as great as in the temperate zone. For ex-
ample, of the family of Rove beetles (Staphylinidae) Dr. Sharpe esti-
mates the probable number existing in the valley of the Amazon at
from 4000 to 5000. And Mr. H. W. Bates, who spent several years
(we believe nine) on the Amazon, states his belief that the propor-
tion the smaller forms bear to the larger is as great in Brazil as in
Europe ; but the larger forms were, of course, more commonly cap-
tured in a country where so many new and fine si^ecies were to be
found.

New observations on the mode of respiration of the water-boat-
man {Notonecta undulata) have been i3ublished by the writer, in
'' Half- Hours with Insects." This insect is boat-shaped, the keel
of the boat being its back, the deck its ventral aspect. Along the
middle of the underside of the body is a longitudinal ridge ; a broad
gutter between this ridge and the sharp edge of the body is bridged
over from the head to the abdomen by a layer of dark, coarse, oblique
hairs, and a layer of less oblique hairs arises on each side from the
middle of the ridge. These hairs thus form a false upper deck.
The creature rises to the surfjice, the end of the body projecting
slightly out of water ; the air passes up on each side along the tun-
nel under the hairs, and collects in bubbles above the base of the
legs. Along the bottom of this tunnel are six pairs of spiracles into
which the air passes. The air in the specimens he observed did not
adhere to the hairs of the hind-legs, as Siebold says it does, nor, as
he states in his " Comparative Anatomy," translated by Burnett, does
the air for respiration as a rule pass under the elytra, since the spir-
acles are not situated on the upper side of the body, but on the un-
der, and quite a distance from the edge of the body. Nor does this
insect breathe at all, as Westwood states, like Dytiscus, in which
the spiracles are situated on the upper side of the body, so that the
air enters readily under the elytra. When it takes in the air, the tip
of the abdomen is thrust up just above water, and an orifice is formed
by the separation of the hairs at the end of the keel, which form the
larger part of the mouth of the orifice, the remainder being com-
posed of the hairs fringing the movable terminal plates of the bodj^
The air thus passes in between the false deck of hairs and the under
side of the body. When the insect is taken out of the water the

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. clxv

hairs cling to the sides of the body, revealing very distinctly the
breathing-holes. Some air occasionally penetrates under the elytra,
and remains there most of the time. Often the whole under side of
the body between the pairs of legs is a continuous bubble, like a
mass of quicksilver or molten lead. The Notonecta often rises for a
new supply of air before the old is exhausted.

Anotlier water-bug, the Corixa^ is less tame, and does not come to
the surface nearly as often as Notonecta. It receives its supply of air
in an instant, and darts down to the bottom. It does not swim in
an inverted position. It takes in the air so suddenly that it is im-
possible without patient observation to see the mode, which has not
been described. It rises to the surface in a horizontal position, and
no sooner is the surface reached than it darts to the bottom, and in
one instance remained there for ten minutes, and then darted up
again, leaving an air bubble in its wake, which rose to the top after-
ward. It carries down with it a broad, silvery streak along the
side of the body. The air is really introduced under the head and
front thorax. The head is large and very movable, as well as the
prothorax. It slides back and forth on a thin membrane, from the
surface of which it can be raised. So with the hinder edge of the
l^rothorax, which rides over the membranous hind thorax, which it
nearly conceals. When the Corixa rises to the surface it floats in a
horizontal position, the hind edge of the head and the prothorax
rising slightly above the surface. Now slightly raising the back of
the head and the hind edges of the prothorax, a space appears in
front of and behind the prothorax, by which the air passes into the
breathing-holes beneath. This is proved by the small bubbles of air
remaining in these two cracks. Two minute spiracles may be de-
tected in deep pits, one on each side, just above the insertion of the
legs, and from which the tracheae arise, each one dividing into three
irregular short branches, as may be seen by detaching the segment
and holding it up to the light.

clxvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY.

By Db. THEODOKE GILL.

Vertebrate Zoology has received the average amount of attention
devoted to it for the last few years. Valuable contributions have
been made to the morphology and anatomy of the branch, and its
several classes ; numerous species have also been added ; and several
very interesting new types have been made known. Unquestionably
the most noteworthy of these are several forms collected in the Aus-
tralian and Ethiopian realms : these are (1) a species of the genus
TacJiyglossus or Echidna, which has been supposed hitherto to have
been confined to Australia and Van Diemen's Land ; (2) a remarkable
new generic type, representing a previously unknown family, found
in Africa ; and (3) a second genus of the hitherto monotypic class
of Leptocardians. The significance of these discoveries will be made
manifest in our subsequent remarks.

Almost if not quite the jnost interesting of animals has been the
Braiichiostoma lanceolatum (often called Amphioxus lanceolatus), until
lately the type of the only known genus of not only a class, but
even, in the opinion of many, a primary group or " superclass" of the
branch of vertebrates. The genus owes its interest and importance
to the fact that it is, to most intents and purposes, an " invertebrate
vertebrate ;" and that it gives, in its organization, the chief if not the
only clew to the derivation of the vertebrate phylum in its diflferen-
tiation from the mass of the animal kingdom. Through the careful
study of that interesting form, naturalists had arrived at the conclu-
sion that the vertebrates were derived in all probability from the mol-
luscoid Tunicates. Unusual interest is, therefore, attached to the dis-
covery of an apparently well-defined second genus of the family. Its
type was discovered in Moreton Bay, North Australia, by the captain
of the German Imperial vessel Gazelle. The new genus differs from
BrancTiiostoma in the development of a high dorsal fin ; in the
want of a distinct caudal as well as anal fin ; and in the symmetrical
median (not lateral) position of the anal aperture. It appears also
to present some difierences of detail in the structure of the mouth
and oral tentacles ; but these characters require yet to be elucidated.
The type of the genus is much smaller than the species of the genus
BrancMostoma. Ten specimens obtained vary from thirteen to twen-
ty-three millimeters in length. The newly discovered type has been
described by Dr. Peters, of Berlin, under the name of BpigonicMM/s
cultellus. The generic name was apparently given in allusion to the

INDUSTKIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. clxvii

type being the second of its class made known {tTriyovog, later born,
or born of a second marriage, and ix^vg, fish).

Notable contributions to ichthyology have been made relative to
the groups as well as to the faunas of several countries.

A new form of fishes was discovered by Hcrr Buchholz in a small
stream in Victoria, emptying into the Victoria Eiver, in West Africa.
The species is of small size, and in external appearance lias consid-
erable resemblance to a Cyprinodont, and especially to species of the
genus HaplocMlus : it is really, however, closely related to the Osteo-
glossids of South America and Australia, and has no real affinity with
the Cyprinodont ids : it is covered with cycloid scales, furnished with
the radiating fracture-like markings characteristic of the Osteoglos-
soid series ; its head is flattened above ; its cheek protected by the
enlarged suborbital bones; no interoperculum or suboperculum are
developed ; the mouth is very fully provided with teeth ; the dorsal
fin is situated far behind, and is very short and high ; the anal fin is
also short, but more developed than the dorsal, and more anterior;
the ventral fins are rather far advanced forward, although, of course,
still abdominal. The relations of the type are evidently with the
family with which it has been compared i. e., the osteoglossids ; and
the importance of its discovery is due chiefly to this afiiuity. It has
been claimed by several observers that there is in many respects a
close relationship between the African and South American faunas,
and that this relationship is evidence of the former closer connection
of the two continents ; these as well as the Australian continent fur-
nish not a few proofs that they have derived their animal inhabitants
from a common but very remote primitive source. The newly dis-
covered fish furnishes another decided argument in favor of the
truth of this view. It has been named Pantodon (in allusion to the
numerous teeth) BucJihohi.

A characteristic type of fishes of the Northern Atlantic is exem-
plified in the species variously called " Sea-Wolf," "Wolf-fish," and
" Cat-fish." This species (the Anarrhicas liqms of naturalists) is
common to both sides of the Atlantic, and is well known in con-
nection with its powerful jaws, and its consequent ability to wound
and otherwise injure fishermen. The other species of the genus
have been involved in considerable obscurity. In the past year,
however, Professor Steenstrup has published, in Danish, a mono-
graph of the genus, in which he has demonstrated that in the ex-
treme northern seas, anrl especially the Greenland waters, no less
than four species are found, which represent two quite distinct
minor types or subgenera, one {Anarrhicas proper) containing two
species {A. lujms and A. minor)^ and the other {Lycichthys) contain-
ing also two, but less known species {A. latifrons and A. denticu-
latus).

Among the contributions to knowledge of the Ichthyic fiumas of

clxviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

various countries, probably the most interesting are respectively the
monograph of tlie fishes of the Aralo-Caspio-Euxiue basin, by Pro-
fessor Kessler; the Catalogue of the Fishes of the Bermudas, by Pro-
fessor G. Brown Goocle ; and the summary of the fishes of the high
mountainous lake of Peru, Titicaca, by Mr. S, Garman. These owe
their interest to the isolated positions or other geographical rela-
tions of the regions in question.

The number of fishes in the great interior basin first alluded to is
unexpectedly large, considering tlie latitude and character of the
surrounding country ; about 280 have been recognized by Professor
Kessler. Doubtless the most interesting development, to Americans
at least, is the discovery of not less than three species of the genus
SmpliorhyncJms (a genus belonging to the sturgeon fiimily), of which,
until lately, but one species had been known, and that a familiar in-
habitant of the Mississippi Valley.

Nothing of a special interesting or novel nature has been published
on the class of Amphibians.

In the class of reptiles, the discovery of a second species, or at
least supposed species, oi the genus 8i)henodon^ or Hatteria, deserves
notice. The genus Splienodon had hitherto only been known to con-
tain one species, and that the sole existing representative of a former-
ly richly developed order. The first species appears to be confined to
Karewa Island, in the Bay of Plenty, New Zealand ; and the second
species has been discovered in the Brother Island, also of the New
Zealand archipelago.

In Ornithology quite a number of valuable contributions have been
made to the morphology and taxonomy of various groups l)y Garrod,
Kidder, Coues, and others ; and the faunas of a number of countries
have received attention from systematic ornithologists.

One of the most interesting publications on classification is a mon-
ograph on Ckionis and its relations, by Drs. Kidder and Coues. This
genus is confined to the southern hemisphere, where it is represent-
ed by two sjDecies; one found at the extremity of South America,
etc., and the other on Kerguelen Island, etc. The affinities of this
form were long involved in much doubt : it had, according to some,
passerine relations; according to others, gallinaceous ones; but, in
the opinion of most recent ornithologists, it was most nearly related
to the plover-like birds, and especially the genus Hfematojms. It
now appears, however, from the investigations of Kidder and Coues,
that it is nearer of kin to the gulls than any other birds; but that
its relations, to some extent, are intermediate between the plovers
and the gulls. The authors cited have therefore recognized it as
the type of a primary group or " super-family " of birds under the
name of Chionomorplice^ w^hich is intercalated between the Charadrio-
morjjJice and CecomoiyJice.

The contributions to our knowledge of the avifliunas of regions

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. clxix

have been, as has been the wont for a number of years, quite multi-
tudinous. Among them three may be especially enumerated on ac-
count of the interesting nature of the regions in question, as well as
in connection with a certain law of development which they sug-
gest : these are respectively a catalogue of the birds of the Galapa-
gos Archipelago, by Mr. Salvin ; a descriptive list of the species of
the Californian Guadelupe Islands, by Mr. Ridgway ; and an article
upon the parrots of the Mascarene Islands, by Professor Newton.

Mr. Osbert Salvin, in his memoir " on the Avifauna of the Galapa-
gos Archipelago," adds much to the information previously possessed
of the birds of that remarkable group of islands. These islands are
about fifteen in number, and are clustered under the equator about
600 miles west of the coast of South America. They are remarkable
for the number of peculiar species ot birds. Fifty-seven are now
known from the different islands, thirty-eight of which are peculiar
to one or more of them, and only nineteen (and those mostly water-
birds, or species possessing great power of flight) have been found
elsewhere. These fifty-seven species represent thirty -nine genera,
of which five are peculiar to the islands, seven are common to them
and the contiguous coast of America, and the remaining twenty-
seven are types of wide distribution. The entire avifauna is a strik-
ing exemplification of the modifications concomitant with isolation
and peculiar conditions.

Mr. Ridgway's article " on the Ornithology of Guadelupe Island "
was " based on notes and collections made by Dr. Edward Palmer."
The Guadelupe Island meant is situated between latitudes 28 45'
and 29 10' north, and is distant about 220 miles southwest from
San Diego. The species known are but few in number, only eleven
land-birds having been identified ; and of these only eight are known
from specimens. All of those thus known are either distinct specifi-
cally, or as varieties, although, as was of course to be expected, they
are congeneric with and near allies to species of the adjacent main-
land.

The extent to which certain groups are developed under excep-
tional conditions, and their liability to extermination on the intru-
sion of extraneous agents, have been w^ell exemplified in the history
of the Mascarene Islands. These islands, including Mauritius, Re-
union, Rodriguez, and the Seychelles, were within the historical pe-
riod the abode of some remarkable birds, among which the Dodo
and the Solitaire were the most conspicuous. These were uncouth
small-winged birds which lived on the ground and attained a large
size, and this development was doubtless due to the absence of car-
nivorous mammals or other formidable enemies. The history of
their extermination is familiar to naturalists ; but it is not so well
known that other birds have undergone or are now approaching a
similar fate. Some of these were also imperfectly endowed with

8

clxx GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

power of flight. One group thus afFected has been lately elucidated
by Messrs. A. and E. Newton in a memoir " on the Psittaci of the
Mascarene Islands." It appears that each of the four islands of that
group had at one time at least two species of parrots, among which
were even two generic types; one {Necropsittacus rodericmius) con-
fined to Rodriguez, and another {Lophopsittacus mauritianus) restrict-
ed to Mauritius. These two are now known only from their fossil re-
mains save that in one case (LojjJiopsittacus) the external characters
are traceable from a figure made by an old Dutch traveler. The other
species have also become exterminated, or exist in diminished num-
bers. Thus in Mauritius one is entirely extinct, and another exists
in decreased numbers; from Reunion two formerly indigenous spe-
cies have entirely disappeared ; in Rodriguez one species is now also
entirely extinct, and another nearly so ; and only in the Seychelles
Islands are the two species found in any number, but even they are
receding, and apparently doomed to the fate of their relatives.

A study of these several memoirs, and the data on which they are
based, and especially a comparison of the measurements of the in-
sular species thus referred to with those of continental areas, reveals
the fact that the island forms have at least a decided tendency to
abbreviation of the wings and develojDment of the legs in proportion
to each other as well as to the bill. These characteristics, it is true,
have not been adverted to in the memoirs enumerated ; but they be-
come evident upon a comparative examination of the species signal-
ized by them and allied continental ones. The restriction of the
areas and the paucity of carnivorous enemies, which detract from the
necessity of flight, and induce the greater use of means of terrestrial
progression, are doubtless the determining causes of these peculiari-
ties.

For the class of mammals one discovery merits sjDecial mention,
and several monographs of different families or genera of special in-
terest have been published.

The order of Monotremes^ the lowest and most generalized tyjje of
mammals, and which dificrs in the most marked manner from all
other types of the class, has hitherto been suf)posed to be confined
to Australia in the present geological epoch. In that continent it
has furnished two very distinct forms or representatives of distinct
families Tachyglossus, or Echidna, and Ornithorliynchus. During the
past year, however, the collectors of Mr. Bruijn, of Ternate, obtained
from natives, on a peak of the Arfaks called Mickerbo, in the
island of New Guinea, two imperfect skulls of a mammal which
evidently is a typical member of the family Tacky glossidoe. This has
very lately (December 3, 1876) been described by Messrs. W. Peters
and G. Doria as a new species of the genus Tachyglossus, under the
name T. Bruijnii. It nevertheless differs markedly from the T. hys-
trix and T. setosus of Australia in the much more elongated and

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. clxxi

nearly uniformly or very gradually attenuated and decurved rostrum,
as well as in the contour of the palate, etc. So great are these dif-
ferences that consistency with the generally accepted canons regu-
lating generic differentiation among the mammals necessitates the
expression of those differences in nomenclature by special generic
designations, and the newly discovered form may therefore be ap-
propriately contrasted under the name Zaglossus (Za, augmentative
particle, and yXoao-a, tongue) Bridjnii, with the previously known
Tachyglossus hystrix and Tachyglossus setosus. The Papuan species is
very much larger than the Australian ones, and w^as described by
the natives as being about as large as a dog, and having a decided
tail, and long, harsh fur. The external characters therefore, proba-
bly, also contrast with those of the Australian animals. The species
is highly esteemed by the Papuans as food, and is hunted down by
dogs. It conceals itself in small caves, and must be either rare or
difficult to catch, as the hunters of Mr. Bruijn were unable to obtain
more than the two skulls referred to.

Of the monographs published the most noteworthy are those of
Professor Flower, on the existing species of Rhinoceros, and Mr. J,
A. Allen, on the existing and extinct species of Bison of the Ameri-
can continent, Mr. Alston's memoir on the classification of the Or-
der of Rodents will also be found to be of service.

Having thus given some idea of the principal contributions to the
knowledge of existing vertebrate faunas, we now jDass to the con-
sideration of a few of those elucidating the extinct faunas. Our re-
stricted limits permit us only to do little more than refer to those
relative to the animals which formerly inhabited the countries at
present embraced within the limits of the United States, These
contributions have been chiefly, as for several years past, by Marsh,
Cope, and Leidy.

During the period immediately preceding our own, the terrestrial
vertebrates that ranged over our territories were essentially the same
as those that now live here ; it has been shown, however, that on
the whole the mammals at least were larger in size. This was first
proved, on a considerable scale, by Professor Baird, and recent re-
sults have corroborated his conclusions. In 1876 Mr, J, A. Allen
described, from the lead-bearing regions of Illinois, the remains of a
deer and wolf analogous resjDectively to our recent Cnriacus virginia-
nus and Canis Inpus, but which are considerably larger, thus confirm-
ing the generalizations already enunciated.

In the Miocene epoch existed a fauna quite different from our jjres-
ent one. The forms that then flourished, and which were among the
most characteristic of the time, apparently died out with that epoch,
without leaving any lineal descendants. One of the most remark-
able of the forms of the Lower Miocene was a peculiar type of mam-
mals related to the family of Rhinocerotids of the present time,

clxxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

which latter are now confined to the tropical parts of the so-called Old
World. In past periods, however, that family was well represented
within the present boundaries of the United States ; and at a still
more remote period i. e., in the Lower Miocene forms related to the
living type, but which were dilferentiated by quite distinct charac-
ters, and which were very closely related to at least the progenitors
of the recent Rhinocerotids, existed in numbers in what is now West-
ern America. This type, which has been distinguished as a family
by Professor Marsh under the name of Brontotheriids, was closely
related to the Rhinocerotids, but differed in details of dentition and
the feet, as well as the armature of the head. The typical species,
at least, were provided with horns, arising not from the median
line, as in the present Rhinocerotids, but from each side of the nose.
The brain was also very much smaller than that of the Rhinocero-
tids of the present epoch. According to Professor Marsh, four ge-
neric types can be recognized : these have been distinguished under
the names (1) Menodus or Titanotherium, (2) Megacerops^ (3) Bronto-
therium^ and (4) Diconodon. These are again combinable into two
groups, one composed of the first and second, and the other of the
third and fourth genera. All the known remains of the family have
been obtained from east of the Rocky Mountains, in the Lower Mio-
cene beds of Dakota, Wyoming, and Colorado. It is quite possible,
however, if not probable, that the family is identical with the Chali-
cotheriids which existed at nearly the same period in India as well
as in Europe.

At an earlier epoch of the history of our continent (the Eocene)
existed a still more characteristic type, which has been isolated by
Professor Marsh as even a distinct order of Mammals, under the
name of Dinocerata. The animals so distinguished were closely re-
lated to the Proboscideans (elephants, etc.), but of a much more
generalized ty23e ; like them, they had columnar legs and pentadac-
tyle feet, but the articulations of the tarsals and carpals severally
with each other and with the proximal segments of the limbs were
quite diflerent. These animals, like the BrontotheriidcB^ were also
distinguished by their formidable armature ; some of them, at least,
are believed to have had as many as three pairs of horns two frontal,
two supraorbital, and two nasal. They were moreover provided with
very large and trenchant or sabre-like canines; the incisors were
rudimentary, or entirely obsolete ; the molar teeth were very small ;
the brain was still smaller than in the Brontotherium, although the
animals were in some cases at least as large as elephants. All the
certainly known representatives of this group have been found in
the Eocene beds of Wyoming.

During the same ejDoch in North America lived another pecul-
iar type, and which has also been distinguished as a special or-
der of mammals by Professor Marsh under the name Tillodontia.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. clxxiii

These forms have quite a characteristic combination of characters :
tiie skull of the known species has superficial resemblance to that
of a bear ; the incisor teeth were much like those of rodents, beino-
two in number in each jaw, and apparently reproduced by gradual
growth from their bases ; the molars resembled those of the pachy-
derm ungulates ; the feet were pentadactyle ; the scaphoid and
lunar were separate from each other ; the digits provided with
claws. This unusual combination of characters can not be recon-
ciled with the accepted diagnostic marks of any of the existing or-
ders ; and either the generally admitted definitions or the orders of
the present age will have to be modified to include these extinct
forms, or the forms thus left must remain, as indicated by Professor
Marsh, as representatives of a distinct order. The brain, as in the
Dinocerata^ was very small in comparison to the bulk of the animal,
although (as might have been premised from the size of the animal)
much larger in proportion than in the latter. The species known
were smaller animals than those of the group just noticed, the best
known species of Tillotheriwn being only about half or two thirds
the size of the common South American tapir.

In the. same Eocene period, and perhaps contemporary with the
last, lived a horse-like animal of a still more generalized type than
any of those which had previously been made known. This animal
was about as large as a fox, but somewhat more robust in its pro-
portions ; the feet had well-developed digits four in front ; behind,
three perfect, and a fourth (" fifth ") rudimentary metatarsal ; the ra-
dius and ulna in the fore limb, and the tibia and fibula in the hind,
were distinct and well developed. The type so distinguished has
been named Eohippus by Marsh, and two sjDecies have been recog-
nized: it belonged, apparently, to the family of OroMppidoi., and prob-
ably was the nearest relative to the progenitors from which have
descended the modern equine mammals.

Contemporary with these, and identifying their geological horizon,
was an animal whose remains have been identified both by Marsh
and Cope with the genus Coryplwdon^ long known by imperfect
fragments from the Lower Eocene beds of Europe. The more per-
fect remains found in this country prove that the animal was a gen-
eralized perissodactyle ungulate of peculiar fiimily, with five digits,
and not at all nearly related to the living Tapirids or the allied
Lophiodontids, as has been generally supposed.

The mammals of the Eocene are the earliest of the higher types
of the class that have yet been discovered: between them and those
of the Trias a great blank intervenes, representing an enormous period,
and deposits of vast thickness, which have yielded up to the pres-
ent time no certainly identified remains of mammals, although, of
course, they must have been living during the whole of tliat epoch.
The conditions of life were very favorable, however, for the develop-

clxxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

ment of reptile life, and representatives of that class were the mon-
archs of the time.

The Cretaceous epoch in this countrj^, as in Europe, was distin-
guished by the great development of certain peculiar reptiles.
Among these the most characteristic and strange in many respects
were the Pterodactyles^ or Flying Lizards. Not long ago these were
supposed by some not to have lived in America, but now quite a
number of forms have been discovered in this country. Among
these were some distinguished from the forms previously known
from Europe by the absence of teeth, and with this condition were
co-ordinated other characters : these animals have, therefore, been
distinguished under the name Pteranodon^ and even presented as
the rejDresentatives of a suborder {Pteranodontia) distinct from other
pterosaurians, which, as tooth-bearing animals, must then be con-
trasted under the name " Pterodontia."

From certain strata of the Territory of Montana, whose age has
been disputed. Professor Cope, in a recent expedition to that region,
has obtained numerous species of reptiles, especially of the order of
Dinosaurians. Some of these were of large size, and among them
were apparently carnivorous as well as herbivorous species.

In a still earlier age of the secondary epoch, in widely separated
parts of the world, a remarkable group of reptiles existed, which
were characterized, according to Owen, by teeth resembling those
of typical mammals, in that they had " incisors defined by position,
and divided from the molars by a large laniariform canine on each
side of both upper and lower jaws, and the lower canine crossing in
front of the upper, as in mammalia." The earliest described remains
of any representatives of the grou^D were made known, but without
appreciation of their systematic relations, by Russian naturalists, and
were found in certain deposits in Russia that have been referred to
the Permian age. In 1876 Professor Owen further elucidated the af-
finities of the group, and described a considerable number of species
from rocks of South Africa which have been assigned to the Triassic
epoch. These have been grouped into two sections or families
Binarialia, characterized by the external nostrils being divided by a
narrow partition, and Mononarialia, distinguished by the external
nostrils being single and undivided. To this group of Theriodontia
has also been referred a form, described by Professor Leidy, from
Prince Edward's Island.

INDUSTEIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. clxxv

BOTANY.

By W. G. FARLOW, M.D.,

Peofessor of Botanv, Harvard College.

Although the present year has not been marked by any brilliant
discovery in vegetable morphology or physiology, it has been pro-
ductive in descriptive works, and in experiments which have proved
valuable as confirming what was known or previously suspected,
rather than as tending to revolutionize previous ideas.

DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY.

Among the descriptive works bearing more directly on the flora
of the United States must be mentioned the first volume of the
" Botany of California," published by the geological survey of that
state, aided by contributions from private sources. This volume
includes the Polypetalce by Professor W. H. Brewer and Mr. Sereno
Watson, and the Gainojjetalce by Professor Asa Gray. The volume,
except that it is without illustrations, resembles in form the " Botany
of the Clarence King Expedition," by Mr. Watson. Another contri-
bution to the botany of the western country is the " Flora of South-
western Colorado," by T. S. Brandegee, reprinted from Hay den's " Bul-
letin of the Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories,"
Vol. II,, No. 3. To this pamphlet Professor Asa Gray and Dr. Engel-
mann have contributed. In the " Proceedings of the American Acad-
emy of Arts and Sciences," January 5th, 1876, is a paper by Professor
Gray, in which he describes a number of new American species, and
gives a synopsis of American Mimidi. In the " Transactions of the
Academy of Science of St. Louis" Dr. George Engelmann has pub-
lished two valuable papers. The first, " Notes on Agave," Decem-
ber, 1875, but reprinted at a later date, contains a descrii3tion of
species of that genus, thirteen of which occur in the United States.
The second article is a revision of the " Oaks of the United States."
A series of plates of American flowering plants, by Isaac Sprague,
with descriptions by Professor G. L. Goodale, is announced to a^D-
pear at the close of the year. Descriptions of new American Musci
and Hepaticce., by C. F. Austin, have been published in the Bulletin of
the Torrey Club ; and new species of American fungi have been
described by J. B. Ellis, Charles H. Peck, W. R. Gerard, Rev. M. J.
Berkeley, M. C. Cooke, and Baron Von Thiimen, in the Bulletin of the
Torrey Club and Grevillea. New species of American Alga? have been
described by Professor J. E. Areschoug iu the BotanisM Notiser.

clxxvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

The two most important works on the phanerogams of foreign
countries liave been the second vokime of the " Genera Plantarum,"
by Bentham and Hooker, which contains the genera of Gamo'petalm^
and tlie second volume of the " Flora of British India," by Dr. J. D.
Hooker. In French there has been a monograph of the Pomece by
Decaisne, and continuations of the Primitim Mmiographim Bosarum
by Cr^pin. In addition, there have been numerous less important
contributions to our knowledge of different genera and orders which
we can not particularize in the present connection.

The leading works on descriptive cryptogamy have been a third
volume of the " Species, Genera, et Ordines Algarum," by Professor
J. G. Agardh, of Lund, in which he gives a review of the Floridece,
but does not acknowledge the results of recent researches in arrang-
ing his classification ; and " Notes Algologiques," by Gustave Thuret,
edited by Dr. Edouard Bornet, the first fasciculus of which has ap-
peared. The plates of the latter work deserve great commendation.
Descriptions of new fungi and lichens are contained in numerous
short papers scattered through the different journals. Among the
more curious fungi are two genera, Kalclibrennera and MacOwanites,
described by Berkeley in the Journal of Botany.

EXPEDITIONS.

During the present year a report on the botany of Kerguelen
Island was made by Dr. J. E. Kidder in the Bulletin of the United
States National Museum. The report showed interesting additions
to the flora of that island, including phanerogams as well as ci^pto-
gams. The reports of different British botanists, Berkeley, Dickie,
Eaton, and others, on the collections made by the British Transit
Expedition, have been partially published in English journals, but
have not as yet been collected into one volume.

VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND CELL STRUCTURE.

The structure of the cell has been discussed by Strassburger in
"Ueber Zellbildung und Zelltheilung." A reply to Strassburger
was made by Professor Auerbach in an article entitled " Zelle und
Zellkern," published in Cohn's Beitrdge zur Biologie der PJianzen.
Auerbach maintained that the cell nucleus consists of a fluid
which in time surrounds itself with a wall, and which later contains
a number of nucleoli. Strassburger in his work attacks this view of
the nature of the nucleus, and says that " Auerbach has, at any rate,
considered the vacuoles which form in the nuclei as the nuclei
themselves." Auerbach rather acrimoniously replies to this, and the
contest seems to be one relating rather to the use of certain techni-
cal terms than to a matter of fact. In Pringsheim's Jahrhucher
Tschitstiakoff has published an article on the structure of the cell.

In the Annales des Sciences have appeared a second memoir by

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. clxxvii

Professor Duchartre, entitled " Observations sur les Bulbes des Lis,"
and a " Memoire sur I'Anatomie de I'ficorce," by Julien Vesque, in
which the structure of the bark is considered at considerable lenerth,
without, however, adding much to our knowledge in the way of
newly discovered facts. In the Botanische Zeitung Bolle has given
an account of the " Terminal Growth of the Angiospermous Root-
cap," and Dr. Reuther an account of the " DeveloiDment of the
Flower." In the same journal Graf Solms - Laubach describes the
development of the flowers of Bi'ugmansia Zippelii, Bl., and Aristo-
lochia Clematitis, L. In Pringsheim's Jahrbilcher Reinke treats of
the organs of " Secretion of Leaves," es23ecially those found on the

teeth.

INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS.

Since the appearance of Darwin's book on this subject, several
observers, among whom is Professor Rees, have published results
confirming Darwin's experiments with regard to Drosera^ and Mr.
Francis Darwin has published {Quarterly Journal of Microscojncal
Scie?ice, July, 1876) some details of the process to which his father
ajDplied the name of aggregation, in Drosera rotundifolia. With
reference to the digestive powers of Bioncea, Dr. Fraustadt has
made a careful study of the anatomy of its vegetative organs. The
attention of botanists has more esjDecially been turned of late to the
digestive power of the Sarracenice, or pitcher-plants, concerning
which an article appeared in Hai'per^s Magazine from the pen of Mrs.
Mary Treat. Mr. Burgess reported at a meeting of the Natural
History Society in Boston that he had found that the lip of the leaf
of Sarracenia purpurea secreted sugar. M. Casimir de CandoUe, in
a paper in the Geneva Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles,
doubts whether the animal matter caught by the leaves of Bioima
is utilized by them.

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
Mr. Francis Darwin read before the Linnoean Society of London a
pajDcr on the " Hygroscopic Mechanism by which certain Seeds are
enabled to bury themselves in the ground." The hygroscopic twist-
ing of the awn on certain seeds he considers owing to the power of
torsion in the individual cells. Professor Asa Gray, in the Natural-
ist^ gives an account of some peculiar qualities of certain Borragina-
ceous seeds. The "Influence of Light on the Color of Flowers"
has been the subject of some experiments by Askenasy, who comes
to the conclusion that in the majority of cases of plants grown in
the dark the flowers are of the normal color. In the Botanisclie
Zeitung Reinke has a long article on the growth of plants. In a
later number of that journal Sachs comj)laius that Reinke's method
is borrowed directly from that pursued at Wlirzburg.

8*

clxxviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

CRYPTOGAMY ; HIGHER CRYPTOGAMS.

During the year the attention of botanists has been more particu-
larly drawn to the Hepaticoi than to any other portion of the, higher
cryptogams. Prantl and Leitgeb have frequently discussed the
subject in the journals and society meetings, but have not published
articles of any length. In ferns, the development of the j^rothallus
of the CyatliecE has been studied by Dr. Bauke. Dr. Stahl, of Stras-
burg, describes the production of protonemata from the sporogo-

nium of mosses.

LICHENS.

In a morphological point of view, very little has been done with
this grou^D during the year. The discussion of the Schwendeuer
theory, which for the last few years has been very animated, has
somewhat subsided. Winter has made contributions to the knowl-
edge of tlie crustaceous lichens in the case of the genus Sphcerom-

pTiale.

FUNGL

In this department great activity has prevailed, both in the de-
scriptions of new species, which have been limited principally to
pamphlet articles, and in investigations with regard to the develop-
ment of the different orders. The absorbing topic has been the fer-
tilization, by means of a carjDOgone, of certain species of Cojyrimis,
wdiich was supposed to be the key to the develoj^ment of all the
Hyinenomycetes. In 1874 Rees announced the discovery of a carpo-
gone in Coprimis, and was soon confirmed by Van Tieghem, of Paris,
in the Comptes-Bendus, February, 1875. A. short time afterward,
however. Van Tieghem reported in the Comptes-Bendus that he had
been w-rong in supposing that what he considered the spermatia
were the male organs, as he had found subsequently that they ger-
minated, and were consequently a form of stylospores. During the
present year the discussion has been continued by Rees, Brefeld,
and Van Tieghem in the Botanische Zeitwig and Comptes-Bendus ;
and Van Tieghem and Brefeld both now believe that what was sup-
posed to be a carpogone in Coprinus has nothing to do with sexual
reproduction. Van Tieghem goes farther, and hints that tlie so-
called reproduction by a carpogone is, in most of the Ascomycetes, an
entirely asexual process, judging by his observations on Clmtomium,
which are not yet published in full. Brefeld denies the existence
of any group of Carposporem as described by Sachs, founding his
statement on the fict that in a new species of Mortierella^ which
belongs undoubtedly to the Zygomycetes^ a carposporic fruit is de-
veloped. In the Annales des Sciences^ Cornu gives in detail his '' Ob-
servations on the Germination of Spermatia," which he thinks can
not be considered male organs. Dr. Hermann Bauke has studied the
development of certain pycnidia, and finds, as Tulasne has already

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. clxxix

suggested, that they are simply conditions of species of Pyrenomy-

cetes.

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGY.

In the Bulletin of the Bussey Institution are articles on the effects
of Fumago salicina on orange and lemon trees in California, on the
disease of grape-vines in America caused by Peronospora viticola,
and on the " black knot " of plum and cherry trees. Mr. Charles H.
Peck, in the Proceedings of the Albany Institute, has a paper on
diseases of the Black Si^ruce. The potato-rot fungus was the sub-
ject of a communication made by Professor De Bary, of Strasburg,
to the Royal Agricultural Society of Great Britain. He calls in
question the statements of Worthington G. Smith that he had dis-
covered the oospores of Peronospora infestans, the fungus causing
the rot, but thinks that the so-called oospores may belong to a new
species of Pythium, which he calls Pythium vexans. De Bary makes
Peronospora infestans the type of a new genus, which he calls Phy-
toplitliora. On the other hand, Mr. Smith replies by an article in
the Gardenefs Chronicle that he has watched the germination of the
oospores, and finds that they reproduce the Peronospora. The ques-
tion can hardly be settled satisfactorily until some competent per-
son shall confirm the views expressed by one side or the other.

ALG^.

In the Botanisclie Zeitung Cienkowski describes the palmelloid state
of a species of Stigeodonium. Reinke, in Pringsheim's JahrMicher,
and Rostafinsky describe the apical growth of the Fucacece, find-
ing that some genera, as Sargasswn^ have a single terminal cell,
while other genera, as Fucus, do not. Sachs, in Flora, has some
curious observations on the forms which zoospores assume in water,
which he ascribes to the mechanical action of currents rather than
to a vital movement. In the Beitrdge zur Biologie Cohn has some
remarks on the organization of zoospores.

BACTERIA.

Of the almost numberless articles on Bacteria which have appear-
ed during the year, those by Bastian are almost the only ones in
which the theory of spontaneous generation is still maintained. By
far the majority of writers believe that bacteria as well as all other
plants come from previously existing germs, and the object on the
part of the botanists has been to trace the development of some one
species. This has to a certain extent been done by Colin in an
article in the Beitrdge zur Biologie der Pflanzen, in which he gives an
account of the formation of spores of Bacillus subtilis. Cohn main-
tains that he has proved that the bacterial form which appears in
fluids which have been boiled is not Bacterium Termo, but always a
Bacillus, to which he gives the name of Bacillus svUilis. Bacterium

clxxx GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

Termo loses its germinating power by boiling, while Bacillus subtilis
does not. Dr. Koch, in the Beitrdge zur Biologie, also gives an account
of the discovery of spores in Bacillus anthracis, a bacterial form found
in inflammation of the spleen. Among the more interesting sjDecies of
bacteria studied during the year is Bacterium rubescens^ formerly con-
sidered an alga, and called Oryptococcus roseus. Attention was first
called to this species in the Quarterly Journal of Microscojncal Science
by Professor Lankaster, and more recently Colin has written on the
subject. These two writers do not agree as to the presence of cilia
in certain conditions of this species. Observers of bacteria have
often been troubled by the admixture of different species in the
same fluid. To obviate this difiiculty, Dr. Salowonsen, of Copenha-
gen, places his nourishing fluid in capillary tubes. If difterent
species are produced they will appear in difierent parts of the tube,
which can be broken at any desired point and a drop of fluid ob-
tained.

DISTRIBUTION AND VARIATION OF PLANTS.

In an interesting article in the Annales des Sciences^ M. Charles
Contejean shows the important influence which the chemical nature
of the soil exercises on plants. He finds that jjlants may be divided
into well-marked groups, according as they are affected by differ-
ent chemical ingredients of the soil. He distinguishes two floras
a maritime, including plants which require salt, and terrestrial,
which can not endure a soil containing salt. The terrestrial flora is
divided into calcicoles, or plants requiring a calcareous soil ; calcifu-
ges, W'hich avoid it ; and indifferent plants, which are neutral toward
it. Each of these four divisions is subdivided into xerophiles,
plants preferring dryness, and hygrophiles, preferring a damp soil.
M. Naudin, in an article on disordered variation of hybrid plants,
mentions the case of a hybrid of Lactuca virosa, and a variety of the
common lettuce. This hybrid did not show any tendency to vary,
and M. Naudin maintains that a hybrid is nothing but a sort of liv-
ing mosaic, each portion of which is reclaimed by the parent species.

NECROLOGY.

Leopold Fuckel died at Vienna, May 8th, while returning from a
journey to Italy. He was for many years an apothecary at Oestrich,
on the Rhine, and is known for his mycological writings, and his
published collection of fungi, entitled " Fungi Rhenani."

Adolphe Brongniart died at Paris, February 18th. He was bom
January 11th, 1801, and in 1834 was chosen member of the Academy.
He w^as the first fossil botanist of his time, and was employed upon
an extensive work on fossil plants at the time of his death.

INDUSTRIAL PllOGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. clxxxi

AGRICULTUEE AND RUKAL ECONOMY.

By Peof. W. O. ATWATER.

EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

European Agricultural Erperiment Stations. By far the largest part
of the investigations made at present in agricultural science comes
from the agricultural experiment stations. These institutions are
indigenous in Germany. The first one was founded in Moeckern,
in Saxony, in 1853. Since that time scarcely a year has passed
without seeing new stations founded in Germany or other parts of
Europe. In 1875 there were, as appears from statements in the
Landwirthscliaftlichen Vei'siicJis-Stationen, the organ of the German
stations, some 40 in the German Empire, of which Prussia had
21, Saxony 6, Bavaria 4, Baden 2, and Wiirtemberg, Saxe-Weimar,
Mecklenburg -Schwerin, Hesse-Darmstadt, Brunswick, Anhalt, and
Alsace-Lorraine 1 each. Of the other European countries, the Aus-
trio-Hungarian Empire had 6, Italy 12, France and Switzerland 2,
and Russia, Belgium, and Holland 1 institution each, which could
be technically called experiment stations. Besides these sixty-five
experiment stations, there were some twenty-five laboratories and
other establishments, supported by agricultural schools, societies, or
private individuals, and occupied with researches in agricultural
science.

It is not easy to determine exactly the number of experiment sta-
tions in active operation in Europe at the date of the present writ
ing the close of 1876. That the number has increased very consid-
erably during the year is evident from data gathered from a number
of European agricultural and scientific journals and reports of sta-
tions, which make Ihe number essentially as follows : German Em-
pire, 50 ; Austrio-Hungarian Empire, 7 ; Belgium, France, Switzerland,
and Russia, 2 each ; Italy, 13 ; and Holland, 1 making 79 in all, be-
sides nearly thirty laboratories not technically experiment stations,
but whose work is, entu'ely or in part, the same as that of the sta-
tions proper. Some of the latter class are very well supported and
eflficient. Among these may be mentioned the following :

" The private laboratory and farm of Boussingault, at Bechclbronn,
near Strasburg, in Alsatia, dating back, as a source of most valuable
agricultural investigations, to the year 1835."

" The private laboratory and experimental grounds of John Bennet
Lawes, Rothamstead, England, where, with the co-operation of Dr.
J. H. Gilbert, a vast number of admirable field and stall experiments
have been carried on since 1845, at an annual cost of some $15,000.

clxxxii GENERAL SUMMAKY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

The laboratory and experimental grounds, with an endowment fund
of 100,000 sterling, have been placed in trust by Mr. Lawes, to re-
main forever devoted to the investigation of agricultural science."

The laboratory of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, un-
der the direction of Dr. Voelcker, at London. Dr. Voelcker receives
300 sterling salary, 200 for investigations, and fees for analyses,
which number some 700 annually. This work has been going on
for over twenty years.

Each one of the larger universities and agricultural academies of
Germany has, among its institutions for scientific research, one or
more laboratories devoted to investigations in agricultural science.
In these some of the most noted of the German investigators are em-
ployed. Twelve universities and three higher agricultural schools
in Russia make similar though, at present, less generous provision
for agricultural research.

It was only a very brief time after Italy was freed from pajDal rule,
and united under the liberal government of Victor Emanuel, that steps
were taken toward the promotion of its most important material in-
terests by the establishment of agricultural experiment stations on
the German plan. Some thirteen are now in operation there.

Among the means adopted by the German government for pacify-
ing and improving the condition of the province of Alsace-Lorraine,
lately acquired from France, were the establishment of a university
at Strasburg and an experiment station at Rufach.

Experiment Stations in the United States. The Bussey Institution
of Harvard University, though not an experiment station in name,
continues to show itself, under the direction of Professor Storer, a
very efiicient and useful one in fact. The first volume of its Bul-
letin a work of some 470 large and closely j)rinted pages has
been completed during the past year, and gives accounts of a large
amount of work, as scientific and thorough as it is unostentatious.

The last report of the Connecticut Board of Agriculture contains
a " Preliminary Report" of a part of the first year's work of the Con-
necticut Agricultural Experiment Station, which shows that this, the
first institution of the sort in this country, is commencing what prom-
ises to be a successful career. Its chief attention thus fiir has been
given to the subject of commercial fertilizers, though investigations
of more abstract questions in agricultural science are in progress.

The example of Connecticut seems to bid fair to be followed in a
number of the other states of the Union. The Vermont State Board
of Agriculture, with the aid of Professor Seeley, of Middlebury Col-
lege, who is secretary and chemist of the Board, have undertaken
the establishment of an exj)eriment station, of which the first Bul-
letin has already appeared. Prominent agriculturists in a number
of other states have been urging before their respective legislatures
the importance of appropriations for the same purpose.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. clxxxiii

FERTILIZERS AND FERTILIZER CONTROL SYSTEMS.

Experiment Stations and the Trade in Commercial Fertilizers. It
is just about twenty-five years since in Germany, as here, the trade
in superphosphates, guano, and similar commercial fertilizers, be-
gan. The same stupendous frauds by adulteration and dilution
of good things were practiced there as they have been, and w^e have
great reason to fear still are, carried on here. But the experiment
station has perfectly cured and rooted out these evils in all the dis-
tricts where it has been established and appreciated. The experiment
station there is prepared to furnisli the farmers at small cost w^ith an
analysis of any fertilizer he proposes to buy. The farmers avail them-
selves of this aid. They will buy no fertilizer without an exact state-
ment of its composition, and they buy with the understanding that
any deficiencies in the stipulated amount of fertilizing mr.lters shall
be made good or deducted from the payment. Under such circum-
stances manufacturers can sell nothing that is not substantially what
it claims to be, A further result of this system is that low-grade
fertilizers are little sought, and those makers who can supply the
l)est article, of uniform quality and at the lowest rates, have the
business. With large sales the dealers prosper, while the consumers
are satisfied with their purchases ; and, instead of trying to see how
they can get along with small use of purchased fertilizers, they are
studying how to use the greatest quantities to advantage. The fer-
tilizer market in Saxony and Prussia, where the exi^eriment station
has the universal sanction and confidence of the farmers, is just as
settled and satisfactory as any branch of trade, and the farmers
there buy superphosphate, guano, potash salts, etc, with as much
security of fair dealing as we can feel in the purchase of sugar or
nails. Professor S. W. Johnson^ hi Tenth Annual Report of the Shef-
field Scientific School of Tale College.

The German Fertilizer Control System. The plans adopted by the
German experiment stations for supervising the trade in fertilizers,
though somewdiat various in their details, have one fundamental char-
acteristic in common, namely, an arrangement made between the sta-
tions and dealers, wiiereby the latter guarantee their goods to contain
certain percentages of valuable ingredients, the verification of the
guarantee being left to the analysis made at the stations. Provi-
sions are at the same time made whereby purchasers can have sam-
ples of the articles they buy analyzed at small cost or for nothing,
and thus assure themselves that their purchases are as represented.
In many cases the chemists of the station select samjDles for analysis
from stocks under their supervision. The farmers have thus the
fullest security that they will get the worth of their money in the
fertilizers they buy.

clxxxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

The Connecticut Experiment Station and the Fertilizer Trade.
A fertilizer control system on the German j)lan has been intro-
duced in Connecticut by the State Experiment Station, and is work-
ing very satisfactorily. A considerable number of low-grade and
fraudulent fertilizers have been examined, and their character ex-
posed. One article, for instance, which had been sold for $55 per
ton, a discount from the regular price of $60 per ton being made to
" introduce the article," proved to be nearly one half sand, and to
have a commercial value of about $8 per ton. Several parties who
had bought and tried the article, on learning the result of the anal-
ysis refused payment, a considerable sum of money being thus saved
to the victims of the fraud. Arrangements are made whereby respon-
sible dealers sell their goods under supervision of the station, guar-
anteeing their composition, and holding them at all times subject to
examination by the station. Purchasers have also the privilege of
having the fertilizers they buy analyzed at the station at small cost
or for nothing. In no case thus far has any article sold under the
supervision proved essentially inferior to the representations upon
which it was sold. Taking both composition and price into account,
the fertilizers sold under the supervision of the station have cost the
farmers on the average less than one half as much as those not so
sold.

Report on Commercial Fertilizers at the Vienna Mvjyosition. The
report on commercial fertilizers, by Professor P. Collier, member
of the Scientific Commission of the United States to the Interna-
tional Exhibition at Vienna in 1873, has appeared in the form of a
pamphlet of sixty-seven pages, and is replete with interesting matter.
It gives a large number of statistics concerning the trade in fertilizers
in Europe and America, their sources, character, value, and cost.

This report coincides fully w^ith the common experience in Europe
and in this country in showing that there is a great deal of fraud in
commercial fertilizers ; that the bulk of what is in the market is
good, however; and that the only method to prevent frauds, enable
the farmers to make sure of getting reliable w^ares, and at the same
time to improve the general quality of the wares as sold, rests in
control systems based on chemical analysis.

SEEDS, SEED CONTEOL, ETC.
Investigations of Seeds in Germany. Of the many new ways in
which science has of late come to be applied to agriculture, one of
the most interesting as well as most useful is in the investigation of
seeds. In 18G9 Dr. Nobbe, director of the agricultural experiment
station at Tharand,in Saxony, commenced the study of seeds in com-
mon use in Germany, and founded the first " seed-control station."
How much of good has come from this may be inferred from the fact
that during tlie seven years that have since elapsed over 4000 sam-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1876. clxxxv

pies of seeds have been examined at Tharand ; that adulterations
have been discovered, most ingenious in character, harmful in effect,
and remarkable in amount, so much so as to work a by no means in-
considerable injury to the agriculture of the country ; and that some
twenty seed-control stations have been established in Germany, w^hile
others have been either founded or projected in Denmark, Austria,
Hungary, Holland, Belgium, and Italy.

One of the outgrowths of Professor Nobbe's work at Tharand is
his lately completed " Handbuch der Samenkunde," a volume of 642
pages, of which 390 pages are devoted to the physiology of seeds,
140 pages to the methods of determining their agricultural value,
and the rest to the means of preventing frauds and other cognate
topics. Some of the material of this work had been previously pub-
lished in the LandicirthschaftlicJien Versuchs-Statmien^ and other Ger-
man journals of agricultural science, and had indicated, what the
completed work decidedly shows, that a really new science, most
interesting in itself and useful in its applications, is being devel-
oped by Dr. Nobbe's researches. Aside from the valuable contribu-
tions thus made to o