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A

ANNUAL RECORD

OF

SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY

FOR 1875.

EDITED BY

SPENCER F. BAIRD,

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF EMINENT MEN OF SCIENCE.

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NEW YORK:

HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,

FRANKLIN SQUARE.

1876.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1876, by

Harper & Brothers,

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

PREFACE.

In presenting to the public the fifth volume of the se-
ries of the "Annual Record of Science and Industry," a
few words in explanation appear to be called for.

In each of the successive numbers already published,
new features have been introduced, suggested by expe-
rience as well as by the advice of the scientific collabora-
tors and friends of the editor.* These are exemplified in
part by the increasing number of communications and
criticisms on progress in the various branches of science,
and by the greater extent of historical resumes given
under the caption of "General Summary of Progress."
These have gradually increased in the successive years
from 16 pages in the volume for 1871, to 272 in that
herewith presented.

The editor has been pleased to notice that his endeavors
thus to increase the value of the work have been on the
whole cordially appreciated by the public at large. With
much of praise, however, sundry friendly suggestions for
modifications and improvements have been made which
merit attention. It has been urged, on the one hand, that
some new facts and memoirs deserving of attention have
not been referred to ; on the other, that the preliminary

* Among those who have taken part in the preparation of the historical
Summaries, or of abstracts of articles belonging to their respective specialties,
or who have supplied early reports of their own original researches, may be
mentioned : Professors Simon Newcomb, Cleveland Abbe, Edward S. Hol-
den, Theodore Gill, and O. T. Mason, of Washington ; Professors G. E.
Barker, E. D. Cope, and Dr. William Wahl, of Philadelphia ; Professor C.
E. Himes, of Carlisle, Pa. ; Dr. Charles Rau, of New York ; Dr. E. S. Dana,
of New Haven ; Professor W. O. Atwater, of Middletown, Conn. ; Dr. T.
Sterry Hunt, of Boston; Dr. A. S. Packard, Jr., of Salem; Professor Asa
Gray and Dr. W. G. Farlow, of Cambridge ; Professor Hamilton L. Smith,
of Geneva, N. Y. ; Professor E. W. Clarke, of Cincinnati ; Prof. A. W. Ben-
nett, of London, and other gentlemen who prefer to remain unnamed.

(iy) PREFACE.

Summaries of Progress would be sufficient alone, without
any paragraphs recording individual discoveries. It would,
of course, be impossible to satisfy such discrepant opinions,
and in this dilemma the only resource left to the editor
lias been to follow a mean which he hopes will be re-
garded by most as a tolerably happy one. It must be re-
membered that far more than ten times the space con-
tained in the present volume would be necessary to give
even an approximately complete abstract of the progress
of science in each of the departments embraced within
the scope of this work: much more than that amount
will in fact be employed in the annual reports that are
hereafter to be made and published on the progress of the
several departments of science for the past year. These
reports, for 1875, however unlike the present volume
will not appear till at least one, and, in some cases, two or
three or even four years have elapsed. These too are, to
a certain extent, addressed rather to experts and special
students in the various branches of science than to the
general reader, for whom the "Annual Record" is more
especially designed. In them the several branches em-
braced herein are respectively reported upon, in volumes
varying from little less than five hundred pages to nearly
two thousand each year. Each special department of sci-
ence has now its own organ for the record of discoveries
within its domain. All these are extremely useful to the
investigator, and enable him to economize precious time,
that would otherwise be spent in frequent reference to
numerous volumes, some of which are almost or quite in-
accessible to all save a favored few. Several, also, are
very elaborate, and the special subdivisions within a single
branch are reported upon by experts in the respective sub-
divisions. Excellent examples of such reports are found in
the JaJiresberichte and Jahrbucher, published in Germany,
on the mathematical, physical, and chemical sciences.
Some branches have even two or more annual works de-
voted to the record of progress in their several spheres ;
such are especially Zoology, on which one report is pub-
lished in Germany and another in England ; Botany,

PKEFACE. ( v )

which has one in Holland and another in Germany ; while
for Anatomy there are two in Germany alone. To re-
ports like these (for the most part enumerated in the vol-
ume for 1874) must the student refer who desires to ob-
tain information respecting the more technical or special
facts or generalizations that have been announced. The
present volume can administer to their needs only to a
limited extent. But the editor hopes that by the re-
lations which he has established with a number of the
most eminent cultivators of the different departments of
science in this country, and through their co-operation, he
has been enabled to present as complete and reliable a
resume of discovery as can reasonably be expected within
the limited space to which an annual like the present
must be restricted.

As now presented, the Record has two distinct parts :
(1) the historical summaries of progress during the past
year, and (2) the paragraphs communicating in brief the
results of investigations by special scientists, or respect-
ing certain subjects. The advantages of the paragraph
method, so generally in vogue in analogous publications
in the English and other languages, are combined with the
more consecutive and eliminating characteristics of the
historical; the latter is a much more prominent feature
in the present volume than in any of its predecessors, and
special attention will be devoted to it in the future.

A list of some of the more prominent publications on
scientific subjects which have appeared during the past
year has been prepared for this volume. In the selections
for this list we have been chiefly guided by the com-
mendatory notices which have appeared in the more
prominent scientific journals of the clay, and references
to the pages of the journals wherein the works catalogued
are reviewed are given. As the journals in question are
generally easily accessible, the reader is thus furnished
with a trustworthy guide in his selection of books.

Spencer F. Baird.

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, March 28, 1876.

TABLE OF CONTENTS*

PREFACE Page (iii)

GENERAL SUMMARY OF PROGRESS xix

A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY (xix) 1

(a.) MATHEMATICS AND THEORETICAL MECHANICS.

The Early Use of the Decimal Point, 1 ; Tables of Elliptic Integrals, 1 ;
the Reduction of Elliptic Integrals, 2 ; New Formula for Determining the
Altitude from Barometric Observations, 2 ; the Trisection of an Angle, 2 ;
Properties of Prime Numbers, 4; Applications of Peaucellier Cells, 4;
Hamilton's Equation of Motion, 4 ; on the Solution of Numerical Equa-
tions, 6 ; Divisibility by Seven, 31 ; the Computation of the Areas of Ir-
regular Figures, 33 ; Properties of the Tetrgedron, 35.
(b.) ASTRONOMY.

Interstellar Space : The Density of the Luminiferous Ether, 6. Stars :
A Fine Double Star, 6 ; Herschel's Catalogue of Double Stars, 7 ; Orbit of
a Double Star, 8 ; the Orbit of the Double Star " Mu Bootis," 8 ; Spectra
of the Faint Stars, 9 ; on the Scintillation of the Stars, 9 ; Photographs of
Stellar Spectra, 11; Orbit of the Double Star 42, Comas Berenices, 36;
Method of Constructing Charts of Stars, 37 ; on the Rectilinear Relative
Motion of the Components of the Star 61 Cygni, 38 ; the Triple Star Zeta
Cancri, 38 ; on the Observation of Variable Stars, 59. The Solar System :
On the Chemistry of the Solar System, 40. The Sun : Agreement of
Secchi's Views with Professor Langley's, 11; White Lines in the Solar
Spectrum, 11 ; the Structure of Solar Spots, 10 ; Zbllner's Theory of the
Solar Spots, 12 ; Ancient Observations of Solar Spots, 12 ; the Solar At-
mosphere, 13; the Dimensions of the Sun, 13; on Solar Radiation, 14;
Studies on Solar Radiation, 15 ; Solar Radiation in Egypt, 42 ; Measuring
the Chemical Action of Sunlight, 16 ; the Temperature of the Sun, 16, 17,
18 ; Variability of Solar Temperatures, 17 ; a Famous Solar Eclipse, 40 ;
Studies upon the Diameter of the Sun, 41; Thermographs of the Isothermal
Lines of the Solar Disk, 42. The Planets: In general: A New Method

* In the arrangement of articles in the body of the Record, it was found impracti-
cable to place them in proper systematic sequence, especially as many belonged as
much to one division as to another, sometimes even to three or four equally. The
present systematic Table is intended to remedy the difficulty, by bringing together in
proper order all the titles of articles, and, by a system of cross references and dupli-
cations, to point out all matter relating to any one subject, whatever be its situation
in the volume. The references in Roman letters preceding the page references of
the headings relate to the pages of the fhtrodnctory " Summary."

; v TABLE OF CONTENTS.

of Computing Planetary Perturbations, 43 ; Mercury: Reflecting Power
of the Planet Mercury, 18; Venus: the Atmosphere of Venus, 19; the
Visibility of the Planet Venus, 19; Results of the American and other Ob-
servations of the Transit of Venus, 52 ; Jupiter : the Mass of Jupiter, 20 ;
J-Airth : the Tidal Retardation of the Earth's Motion, 20; the Variability
of Terrestrial Latitudes, 31 ; Simple Method of Determining Latitude, 31 ;
Determination of Latitude and Time, 32; Uranus: the Satellites of
Uranus, 20. Meteoroids : Origin of Aerolites, 21 ; Galle's Path of the
Meteor of June 17, 1873, 44 ; Two Groups of November Meteorites, 45 ;
on the Structure of Comets and Meteors, 47 ; Meteorites in India, 61.
Comets: the Great Comet of 1684, 21; the Phenomena of Comets, 22;
the Constitution of Comets, 23 ; the Formation of the Tails of Comets, 23 ;
Winnecke's Comet, 24 ; on the Repulsive Forces of Comets, 25 ; Encke's
Comet, 45; on the Structure of Comets and Meteors, 47; on Cometary
Orbits, 47 ; the Distribution of Cometary Orbits, 48 ; Bruhns on Pogson's
and Biela's Comets, 49. Auroras : Peculiar Auroral Phenomena, 26 ; the
Spectrum of the Aurora Borealis, 26; the Geographical Distribution of
Auroras, 26 ; Ground Currents and the Aurora, 27 ; on the Electric Dis-
charges in the Aurora Borealis, 50. Observatories and Instruments, and
their Uses, Time, etc. : The Celestial Indicator, 28 ; on the Errors of
Micrometric Measurements, 29 ; Astronomical Work with the Great Mel-
bourne Telescope, 29 ; the German Nautical Observatory, 30 ; the Fixed
Horizontal Telescope of Laussedat, 30 ; Astronomical Work at Cordoba, 34 ;
Lord Rosse's Three-foot Telescope, 50 ; Compensation of Clocks for the In-
fluence of Barometric Changes, 51 ; Time Arrangement at Pittsburgh, 3,
60 ; Ancient Egyptian Astronomical Observations, 61.

B. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. . . . (xxxiii, xxxv) 63
(a.) TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS (including Dynamical Geology).

The Land in general : On the Evaporation of Water from Hard and
Broken Soils, 63 ; on the Conductivity of Various Kinds of Soil for Heat,
63 ; the Penetration of Cold into the Earth, 86 ; the Figure of the Earth,
67 ; Underground Temperatures, 68 ; Ice-cave near Dobschau, 68 ; Influence
of Forests on Climate, 74 ; Dryness of the Soil in India, 94. Earthquakes :
Earthquakes and Magnetic Disturbances, 64 : the Earthquake of Belluno,
65 ; the Earthquake of the 22d of October, 1873, 66 ; Earthquake in the
Vicinity of New York, December 10, 1874, 93. Volcanoes : Recent Vol-
canic Phenomena in Iceland, 67 ; Volcanoes in Iceland and Ash-showers in
Norway, 93 ; a New Seismometer, 90. Glaciers : Glaciers of the Hima-
layas, 113. Terrestrial Magnetism: Earthquakes and Magnetic Dis-
turbances, 64; Magnetic Disturbances and Auroras in the Arctic Regions,
95; the Magnetic Declination at St. Petersburg, 96; Earth-currents on
Telegraphic Lines, 159, 1G3 ; Measurements of Terrestrial Magnetism, 164:
New Method of Investigating Terrestrial Magnetism, 165. The Interior
Waters : Physical and Faunal Resemblances between the Lakes of Galilee
and of Utah, 64 ; the Deposition of Fine Sediments, 69 ; so-called Tides
in Great Lakes, 69 ; Changes in the Level of the Waters of Lake Geneva,
99 ; the Electrical Condition of Spring Water, 101 ; on the Secular Diminu-
tion in Europe of Springs, Rivers," and Streams with the Simultaneous

TABLE OF CONTENTS. V

Increase in the Flood Waters in the Cultivated Lands, 101. The Ocean :
Secular Changes in the Level of the Ocean, 70 ; New Generalization in
Ocean Phj-sics, 72 ; the Challenger Observations on the Deep-sea Bottom,
73; Photographing the Waves, 103; Barometric Observations on the
Ocean, 101; so-called Tides in Great Lakes, 69; Tides of the Eastern
Aleutians and the North Pacific, 70 ; Influence of Winds upon the Tides,
73 ; on the Tides in the Roadstead of Fiume, 107 ; Tides of the Mediterra-
nean, 113; Origin of Ocean Currents, 71; the Circulation of Ocean Cur-
rents, 71. The Air. See Meteorology.
(b.) METEOROLOGY.

Meteorology in general : Nautical Meteorology, 76 ; Treatise on Meteor-
ology by Mohn, 78 ; Application of Amsler's Planimeter to Meteorological
Calculations, 79; Maritime Conference in London, 88; the Importance of
Meteorology, 90. Climatology in general : Influence of Forests on Cli-
mate, 74; the Dry Season of Brazil, 79; Report of the Signal-Service Ob-
server on Pike's Peak, 80 ; the Frequency of Storms, 80 ; the Passage of
Storms to Europe from America, 80; Do Storms Cross the Atlantic? 112;
Cause of the Warm Climate of the West Coast of Norway, 81 ; Connection
between the Seasons and Human Mortality, 81 ; the Distribution of Thun-
der-storms, 82; Currents of Air within Cyclones and Waterspouts, 85;
the Temperature of Stormy Winds, 88 ; on Atmospheric Pressure, Winds
and Rain, 89 ; Secular Changes of Climate, 90 ; Meteorology in New South
Wales, 91 ; Connection of Weather and Colliery Explosions, 114; Periodic-
ity of Hail-storms, 116; Climatology of Florida, 117. Weather Signals
and Predictions : Daily Weather Charts, 113. Atmospheric Electricity :
see Electricity (Physics) ; Atmospheric Electricity, 97 ; Figures made by
Lightning, 117; Lightning-conductors, 156; Atmospheric Electricity in
Spitzbergen, 157. Atmospheric Pressure and the Winds : on the The-
ory of Tornadoes and Waterspouts, 77 ; the Progressive Movement of
Areas of Cold Air, 85 ; Carbonic-acid Gas in the Air, 92 ; Barometric Ob-
servations on the Ocean, 104 ; on the Distribution of Barometric Pressure
in European Russia, 105. Temperature : the Penetration of Cold Air
into the Earth, 86; Glaciation of Iceland, 113; Periodicity of Severe
Winters, 115. Moisture: Rainfall and Solar Spots, 79; Mirage, 83; Aque-
ous Vapor in the Atmosphere, 87 ; Periodicity of Rainfall, 87 ; on the Secu-
lar Diminution in Europe of Springs, Rivers, and Streams with the Simul-
taneous Increase in the Flood Waters in the Cultivated Lands, 101 ; the
Destructive Floods in Southern France, 98 ; the Diurnal and Annual
Periodicity of the Moisture in Russia, 108 ; the Hourly Distribution of
Rainfall, 114. Instruments : a New Barometer of Large Scale, 83; the
New Self-recording Barometer, 84; a very Delicate Barometer, 86; the
New Anemoscope, 87 ; the Small Oscillations of the Barometer, 104; on
the Accuracy of Anemometers, 108; the Self-registering Barometer of
Redier, 111.

C. GENERAL PHYSICS (xlii) 119

General: Attraction and Repulsion Resulting from Radiation, 119; the
Difference between Dry and Moist Air, 120; on the Laws of Apparent
Adhesion, 121 ; the Dissipation of Energy, 122; Crystallization Illustrated

VI TABLE OF CONTENTS.

by the Microscopic Fhotograph, 128; Chemistry and Thermotics, 125;
Continuity of the Liquid and Gaseous States of Matter, 125; the Forces
developed by Evaporation and Condensation, 126 ; the Heat produced by
Galvanic Currents, 126; the Molecular Constitution of Gases and Liquids,
127 ; Compressibility of "Water, 145 ; the Friction and Thermal Conductiv-
ity of Gases, 169; the Connection between Fluorescence and Absorption,
170; the Isochronism of the Balance Spring, 171; Attraction, Repulsion,
and Radiation, 173 ; Rood's Application of Zollner's Horizontal Pendulum,
174; the Elasticity of Bars of Iceland Spar, 175; a New Manometer, 176;
the Physical Properties of Matter in the Liquid and Gaseous States, 176;
on the Influence upon the Movement of a Pendulum of a Fluid contained
in its Spherical Bob, 177; Flow of Air through Orifices, 186.

Sound (see also p. xlix) : Reflection of Sound from a Layer of Flame or
Heated Gas, 128 ; New Method of Observing the Vibrations of a Tuning-
fork, 130 ; the Action of Organ-pipes, 131 ; Effect of the Movement of the
Observer on Sound and Light, 131 ; the Theory of Resonators, 132 ; Vibra-
tions of Membranes, 132 ; the Cause of Wolf in the Violincello, 179 ; the
Pyrophone, 179 ; Ancient Musical Instrument in China, 202 ; Remarkable
Improvements in Stringed Instruments, 203 ; Harmony in Musical Instru-
ments, 204. Fog-signals : the Gas-gun for Fog-signals, 129; Steam Fog-
whistles, 129 ; a New Fog-signal, 130 ; Relative Efficiency of Various Fog-
signals, 180; Fog-signals, 181.

Light (see also Astronomy for Spectroscopy, and p. lix) : the Spectra
of the Least Fusible Metals, 133 ; the Cause of the Variation of Gaseous
Spectra, 133; a Simple Spectroscope for Stars, 133; the Beginnings of
Spectrum Analysis, 134 ; Spectra of Certain Rarer Metals, 134 ; Effect of
Temperature and Pressure on the Spectrum Lines, 135; New Tables of
Spectrum Lines, 135; Advantageous Construction of the Spectroscope,
136 ; Abbe's Refractometer, 136 ; the Cause of the Luminosity and Non-
luminosity of Flames, 136 ; Flame of Burning Glycerine, 137 ; a Perfectly
Monochromatic Sodium Flame, 137; an Apparatus for Illustrating the
Mechanical Effects of Light, 137 ; on the Intensity of the Light Reflected
from Glass, 138 ; the Fixed Stars as Visible through Minute Apertures,
139; the Opacity of Photographic Images, 140; on Wave Surfaces in
Optics, 140; on Optical Phenomena at the Transit of Venus, 142; the
Color of Diamonds, 144; Gilt-edged Prism in the Construction of the
Camera-lucida, 144; the Reflection of Light, 146; the Action of Light
upon Chlorophyl, 146; Experiments on the Velocity of Light, 147;
Automatic Registration of the Chemical Action of Light, 148; New Method
of Measuring the Velocity of Light, 149 ; the Power of the Electric Light,
150; Electric Light for Locomotives, 151; the Connection between Flu-
orescence and Absorption, 170; the Spectroscope with a Fluorescent Ocular,
138; Accidental or Subjective Colors, 189; Reflection of Thin Films, 191;
Elliptic Polarizations of Light, 140; a New Class of Absorption Phenomena,
141 ; the Phosphorescence of Phosphorus, 141 ; Great French Light-house
at La Havre, 149; the Roman Pharos in Dover Castle, 150; New Pho-
tometers, 145; on Celestial Photometry, 182; Recent Improvements in the
Microscope, 188; Testing Microscope Object-glasses, 189; on the Phenom-
ena of Diffraction Produced by Circular Not-work, 143.

TABLE OF CONTENTS. vii

Heat (see also p. liii) : Attraction and Repulsion Resulting from Radia-
tion, 119; Increased Radiation with Temperature, 119; Ebullition Phenom-
ena, 124; Relation between Chemistry and Thermotics, 125; the Heat
produced by Galvanic Currents, 126 ; tbe Thermal Conductivity of Mer-
cury, 152; on the Expansion of India Rubber by Heat, 154; on the Molec-
ular Heats of Similar Compounds, 155; on the Repulsion Due to Heat,
155; the Specific Heat and Cubic Expansion of Bodies, 156; the Variations
of Temperature accompanying the Diffusion of Gases, 172; the Freezing
of Salt Water, 194; the Black Bulb in Vacuum Thermometers, 151 ; a New
Source of Error with the Mercurial Thermometers, 152 ; Reliability of
Siemens's Pyrometer, 153 ; Siemens's Electrical Pyrometer and Differential
Voltameter, 191; a New Mercurial Thermometer Minimum and Maximum,
153; New Self-recording Thermometer, 154.

Electricity (see also Meteorology, and p. lxxii) : the Transmission of
Mechanical Power by Means of Electricity, 122; the Evaporation of Metals
by Electricity, 128 ; the Power of the Electric Light, 150 ; Electric Light
for Locomotives, 151 ; Lightning Conductors, 156 ; Edlund's Theory of the
Nature of Electricity, 157; on the Electricity of Mineral Waters, 158;
the Stratification of Electric Discharges in Vacuo, 158 ; on Unilateral Con-
ductivity of Electricity, 159, 195 ; the Theory of the Electrical Machine,
199 ; the Electrical Conductivity of Ligneous Substances, 200 ; the Electric
Charge of a Conducting Wire, 159 ; the Action of Electricity on Phos-
phorus, 160 ; the Differences between Voltaic and Frictional Electricities,
160 ; on the Electric Discharge, 196 ; New Modification of the Leclanche
Battery, 161 ; Simple Method of Making Carbon Cells, 162 ; New Absolute
Galvanometer, 162 ; the Influence of a Magnet upon the Galvanic Arch,
166; Siemens's Electrical Pyrometer and Differential Voltameter, 191;
Singular Property of Aluminum Electrodes, 196; Telegraphic Ground-
currents, 197 ; the Electrical Voting Machine, 198.

Magnetism (see also Terrestrial Physics and Meteorology, and
p. lxx) : On the Relation between Specific Gravity and Magnetism of Iron,
124; Velocity of the Transmission of Magnetic Force, 157; Earth-currents
on Telegraphic Lines, 159; the Formation of Magnets by Electrolysis, 164;
the Effect of Magnetism on the Electric Discharge, 165 ; Formation of
Magnetism by Electric Currents, 166 ; the Influence of a Magnet upon the
Galvanic Arch, 166 ; New Source of Magnetism, 167 ; Magnetic Permea-
bility of Iron, Nickel, etc., 167 ; Improvements in the Gramme Magneto-
electric Machine, 168. Compasses : Variations of Ships' Compasses, 163 ;
Circular Magnetic Needles, 200; Corrections of the Compass on Iron Ships,
201.

D. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY (lxxv) 205

General : New Views of Chemical Affinity, 211 ; Water of Crystallization,
212; Microscopic Examination of the Process of Crystallization, 218; the
Incomplete Combustion of Gases, 219 ; Gases Occluded in Meteorites, 220 ;
Why does Plaster of Paris set? 224; Formation of Sulphate by Gas-flames,
228 ; Action of Weak Acids on Salts of Stronger Ones, 232.

The Elements and their Simpler Combinations : Vanadium in Rocks,
205 ; Crystallized Cadmium, 205 ; Oxidation of Ruthenium, 205 ; Metallic

Viii TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Barium, 20G; Precipitation of Metals by Zinc, 207 ; Specific Heat of Car-
bon, Boron, and Silicon, 213; a Hydrate of Carbon, 214; the Composition
of Bleaching-powder, 219$ Gallium, a Supposed New Chemical Element,
223 ; Purification <>f Tin by Filtration, 20G ; the Artificial Imitation of Na-
tive Magnetic Platinum, 206; Crystallized Cadmium, 205; the Combusti-
bility of Iron, 209 ; New Method of Assaying Iron, 209 ; Utilization of the
Pyrite Deposits of the Blue Ridge, 210 ; Hydrogenized Iron, 217 ; a Brittle
Alloy of Iron and Hydrogen, 218 ; to Detect Lead in the Tin Lining of
Vessels, 210; Precipitation of Metals by Zinc, 207; Copper in the Human
Body, 233 ; Absorption of Hydrogen by Metals, 208 ; the Physical Proper-
ties of Hydrogenium, 209 ; Peroxide of Hydrogen in the Atmosphere, 230 ;
Decolorizing Properties of Ozone, 215 ; New Facts concerning Ozone, 215.
Organic Compounds : Cryohydrates, 214 ; Carbonic Oxide in Tobacco
Smoke,216; Mellilotol, 21G; Manufacture of Artificial Vanilla, 217; Source
of the Acid of the Gastric Juice, 221 ; Decomposition of Chloral Hydrate
in the System, 222; Constitution of Ammonium and its Derivatives, 224;
Constitution of Gum Tragacanth, 225 ; Carbonyles, a New Class of Organic
Bodies, 22G ; Hsematin not Ferruginous, 227 ; on a New Coloring Matter
called Eosin, 229; Tartronic Acid a Glycerine Oxidation Product, 231;
Relative Amounts of Potash and Soda in Milk and Other Food, and in the
Entire Body, 233.

E. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY (xcvi) 235

(a.) MINERALOGY, (xcvi)

Wapplerite, 244 ; Clarite, 244; Chalcophanite, 244; Melanosiderite, a New
Mineral, 248 ; Zonochlorite and Chlorastrolite, 244.

(b.) GEOLOGY, (xcix)

Pot-holes, or " Giant Kettles," 235 ; Champlain Deposits of Southern New
England, 246 ; Gas-wells of Pennsylvania, 247 ; Probable Age of the Crys-
talline Rocks of the Southern Appalachians, 236; Tin in NeAV South "Wales,
242 ; Discovery of a Bed of Nickel in Norway, 237 ; Magnetic Sand in
Labrador, 237; Interesting Phenomena Observed in Stone Quarries, 238;
Changes of Level on the Coast of Maine, 238 ; New Mining Region in New
Mexico and Arizona, 240 ; Geology of Costa Rica, 241 ; Falling of Atmos-
pheric Dust in Norway, March 29 and 30, 1875, 241 ; Gold in Eastern
Siberia, 243; Origin of the Red Chalk and the Red Clay, 243; the Massa-
chusetts Silver-lead Mines, 245; Petroleum Springs in North Germany,
240; Coal-mines in Russia, 240 ; Coal-field near Dranista, 241 ; Coal in the
Strait of Magellan, 142 ; Gas-wells of Pennsylvania, 247.

F. GEOGRAPHY (cxiv) 249

(a.) GEODESY, NAVIGATION, AND HYDROGRAPHY, (cxiv)

On the Proper Arrangement of Geodetic Triangulations, 250; Geodesy in
Switzerland, 251 ; Trigonometrical Survey of India, 251 ; Progress of Baro-
metric Hypsometry, 254 ; the Trigonometrical Survey of India, 259; Geo-
detic Signals used in the Adirondack Survey. 260; Correction of Levels.
302; Hypsometry in California, 303 ; the Stadiometer, 304; the Harbor of
New York, 252 ; the Difference of Level between Raritan Bay and the
Delaware F.ivcr, 253; New Route between Australia and China, 254.

TABLE OF CONTENTS. ix

(b.) PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

The Mean Height of Europe above the Sea Level, 251 ; Decrease of Water
in European Rivers in the Present Century, 255 ; Physical Peculiarities of
the Upper Volga, 255 ; Physical Character of Rodriguez, 256.

(C.) EXPLORATIONS, (cxv)

The Arctic Regions; the Ocean and its Depths (see Summary, p. cxviii).

North America : Report of a Reconnaissance of Northwestern Wyoming,
249 ; Topography of Michigan, 257 ; the Saranac Exploring Expedition,
260; Explorations under Dr. Hayden in 1875, 263; Explorations under
Major Powell in 1875, 286; Explorations and Surveys under Lieutenant
George M.Wheeler, U. S. Army, in 1875, 293; Major Powell's Final Report,
298 ; Northern Boundary Surveys, 300 ; Source of the Hudson, 301.

Asia : Fritsche's Travels in China, 297. Africa (see Summary, p.cxxix).
Australia and Polynesia : Experiences of the " Basilisk " in New Guin-
ea, 256 ; Mr. Forrest's Exploration of Australia, 257.

G. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY (clxxvii) 305

(a.) ZOOLOGY IN GENERAL.

General : Origin of Animal Forms, 305 ; Living Animals Corresponding
to those of Prehistoric Ages, 308 ; Antiquity of the Caverns and Cavern
Life of the Ohio Yalley, 309 ; Discovery of Animal Remains in the Lignite
Beds of the Saskatchewan District, 311 ; Fauna of the Mammoth Cave,
313 ; Fossils in the Coal-measures of Ohio, 308 ; Vertebrates found in the
Deposits of the Eocene Lake in New Mexico, 322 ; Extinct Animals in
Rodriguez, 353; Another Link Connecting Birds and Reptiles, 357.
Taxidermy: New Mode of Embalming, 310; Restoring the Red Color of
Alcoholic Preparations, 312.

(b.) FAUNAS.

Fauna of the Caspian, 351.

(C.) ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

The Skeleton : The Agency of Atmospheric Pressure in Causing the Union
of the Joints of the Human Body, 314. The Nervous System : The Func-
tions of certain Canals in the Ear of Man and the Mammalia, 311 ; Leucithine
and Cerebrine, 316 ; Change of Color in the Chameleon, 353 ; Influence of
Temperature on Nervous Sensibility, 355 ; Comparatively Small Brain in
Extinct Animals, 356. The Digestive, Secretive, and Respiratory Sys-
tems : The Intestinal Secretions, 310; Acid of the Gastric Juice, 315; Re-
searches on the Secretion of Honey, 316; New Substance in Urine,
320 ; on the Evaporation from the Human Skin, 321 ; Wind Pressures
in the Human Chest, 317. The Circulation : Gases in the Coagulation
of the Blood, 317; the Diameter of the Red Globules of Blood, 318; the
Gases of the Blood, 318 ; the Pigment Scales of the Blood, 319. Em-
bryology : The Cell-structure of Organic Tissues, 306 ; Electric Currents
and the Fertilized Eggs of Frogs, 316 ; is Sex Distinguishable in Egg-
shells ? 320 ; Sex in the Embryo, 358. General : Influence of the Roots
of Living Vegetables upon Putrefaction, 307 ; the Physiological Action of
Light, 315.

x TABLE OF CONTEXTS.

(d.) ANTHROPOLOGY, (cli)

General : Mental Ability of Different Races, 321; Boyd Dawkins's "Cave
Hunting," 324; the Antiquity of Human Remains, 331; Artificial Deforma-
tion of Teeth, 356. Man in the Old World : Cranial Amulets, 332 ; Stone
Arrow in a Human Tibia, 355; a Strange Race of People Discovered in
India, 323; Human Figure Engraved on Reindeer Horn from the Cave of
Laroche-Berthier, 325; the Lowest of Known Human Forms, 32G; Pre-
historic Remains found near Schaffhausen, 327; Efficiency of Ancient
Weapons, 328 ; Ancient Wells near Ashill, England, 330 ; the Semangs, a
Primitive Race in India, 331 ; Origin and True Character of Certain Stone
Weapons, 333 ; Crania-Ethnica the Cro-Magnon Race, 333 ; Representa-
tions of Animals on Bone and Horn by Men of the Reindeer Period, 335;
Kitchen-midding in the Island of St. George, near Athens, 329. Man in
the New World : Mr. George Latimer's Archaeological Collection from
Porto Rico, 325; Stone Knives with Handles, from the Pai-Utes, 326;
Archaeology of the Mammoth Cave, 327 ; the Sacred Fires of the Pueblo
Indians of Taos, 328 ; Ancient Modes of Burial among the Indians of North
Carolina, 329 ; Hyde Clark's Comparison of American and Accadian Lan-
guages, 330.

(e.) MAMMALS.

Evolution of the Hog, 334; Origin of the Horns of the Deer, 335; New
Tertiary Mammals, 336 ; Professor Marsh on a New Order of Mammals :
Tillodontia, 337 ; Eotherium JEgypliacum, a New Fossil Sirenian, 337 ; Sir
Victor Brooke on Cervus Brownii, 337; a New Kangaroo from New
Guinea, 338 ; Dr. Coues on the Mice of North America, 338 ; Food of the
Mastodon, 339 ; Domesticated Animals among the Ancients, 352.

(f.) BIRDS.

Barnacles on Birds, 338 ; Discovery in Newfoundland of Bones of the Great
Auk, 339 ; Habits of Kingfishers, 339 ; the Flight of Birds, 340 ; Professor
Alfred Newton on the Migration of Birds, 340 ; Introduction of the Ameri-
can Turkey, 354 ; Occurrence of Moa in New Zealand, 359.

(g.) REPTILES AND AMPHIBIA.

New Species of Serpent, 342 ; New Serpent from Florida, 342 ; Resemblance
of Extinct Tortoises to Living Ones, 342 ; the Hybridization of Salaman-
ders, 342 ; Fossil Salamander : Salamandrdla Petroli, 343 ; the Batrachia
and Reptilia of North America, 343.

(ll.) FISHES.

Grayling in the Au Sable River, Michigan, 344; Respiration of the Leach,
345; Monograph on the Anguilliform Fish, 345; Habits of Eels, 346 ; Soft-
ness of Bones in Old Congers, 347 ; Leptoccphali are Larval Forms of
Congers, etc., 348 ; Largest Pike ever taken in England. 346 ; Fossil Lepi-
dosteus, 347 ; Reproductive Season of the Cod on the Faroe Islands, 347.

(I.) ARTICULATES.

Scudder on the Butterflies of the Genus Pamphila, 349; Flight of Butter-
flies, 354 ; Dimorphism in Certain Butterflies, 357 ; Habits of Bees, Wasps,
and Ants, 349; Occurrence of a Cochineal Insect in Nebraska, 350; Mineral
Substances in the Articulata, 350; Capture of Insects by "Fly-catching"
Plants, 350; Gigantic Marine Worm, 352; the Palolo Worm, 359.

TABLE OF CONTENTS. xi

(j.) MOLLUSKS.

Giant Cuttle-fish found on the Grand Bank, December, 1874, 351.

(k.) RADIATES.

Have Jelly-fishes a Nervous System ? 348.

H. BOTANY (ccx) 361

Floras : Modern and Tertiary Floras, 361 ; Catalogue of the Flora of Ne-
braska, 362 ; Vegetation of Amsterdam and St. Paul's Islands, 362 ; List of
North American Alga?, 363 ; Botany of the Libyan Desert, 363 ; Fossil
Flora of the Western Territories, 364 ; Distribution of the Ferns of North
America, 372 ; a Buried Forest in Orwell, England, 372.

Publications : Proposed "Work on American Forest Trees, 377 ; Fossil
Flora of the Western Territories, 364 ; a New Work by Mr. Darwin, 375,
377 ; New Work on Medicinal Plants, 378 ; Revision of the Tulipese, 371.

Vegetable Physiology : Maximum and Minimum Temperature at
which Certain Seeds will Germinate, 364; Assisting the Germination of
Seeds, 364 ; Absorption of Oxygen by Plants in the Dark, 365 ; Transfer
of the Albuminoids of the Seed into the Plantlet, 365 ; Effect of Chloroform
on Vegetable Infusions, 366 ; Effect of Solutions on a Growing Vine, 366 ;
Heat and Vegetation, 367, 368 ; the Respiration of Leaves in the Dark,
369 ; Stimulating Action of Camphor on Plants, 375 ; Influence of Ammo-
nia on the Colors of Flowers, 376 ; Fertilization of a Fern, 378.

Constituents of Plants : Iodine and Bromine in Fresh-water Plants,
370 ; Organic Substances in the Plant, 370 ; Resin in the Agaric, 371 ; Os-
txuthin, a New Vegetable Principle, 371 ; Coptine, 372; Colors of Flowers,
376 ; Chemical Composition of Plants, 372.

Particular Plants : the Bladderwort a Carnivorous Plant, 374 ; New
Species of Glaucium, 374 ; Hollyhock Fungus, 376.

I. AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY (ccxx) 379

In General : Austrian Plan for Supplying Agricultural Text-books, 380.

The Soil : Removal of Acid from the Soil by Oil-producing Plants, 380 ;
Absorption of Ammonia, etc., from Solutions by the Soil, 383.

Manures and Fertilizers : Continued Supply of Guano, 380 ; Artificial
Guano, 381 ; First Annual Report of the Massachusetts Inspector of Fertil-
izers, 381 ; New Guano Deposits in Peru, 382 ; Chemical Analysis of Fer-
tilizers, 382 ; Fish-guano, particularly the Fatless, Dried, so-called Polar
Fish-guano, 384 ; Deterioration of Superphosphates with Age, 386 ; New
Mineral Manure, 386; Field Experiments with various Fertilizers at the
Bussey Institution, 398.

Useful Animals : Lustre Sheep, a New Breed, 387 ; Method of Retard-
ing the Development of Silk-worms, 387. Their Diseases: Horse-pox, 390.

Noxious Animals : Professor Dumas and the Phylloxera, 388 ; Phyllox-
era Remedies, 388 ; Destruction of Earth-worms on Grass-plots, Walks, etc.,
389; the Destruction of Small Birds the Cause of the Spread of Phylloxera,
389 ; the Cotton-worm, 389.

Vegetable Products : Noxious Exhalations from the Meadow-saffron,
379 ; Various Insect-powders, 379; Dry Rot of the Lemon, 391 ; Preserva-
tion of Fruit, 391 ; New Kind of Spinach, 391 ; Best Shape for Fruit-trees,

xii TABLE OF CONTENTS.

392; New Facts in the History of the Potato Blight, 302; Investigation
of the Potato Disease, 392; Fallow on the Potato Rot, 393; New Discovery
in Connection with the Potato Disease, 395; Cultivation of the Asparagus
in Prance, 391; Continuous Corn-growing, 396.

J. PISCICULTURE AND THE FISHERIES (ccxxiv) 405

(a.) THE FISHERIES.

Exhibitions : the New Westminster Aquarium, 422 ; Change of "Water in
Aquaria, 42G; Yarmouth Aquarium, 440. Commissions: Operations of
the United States Fish Commission in 1875, 429 ; United States Salmon-
hatching Establishment, 434 ; Report of the Pish Commission of Canada,
405; Ninth Annual Report of the Massachusetts Commissioners of Fish-
eries, 406 ; Ninth Report of the Fish Commissioners of Connecticut, 406 ;
First Report of the Commissioners of Fisheries of Michigan, 407; First
Annual Report of the Fish Commissioners of Minnesota, 408 ; Fifth Report
of the Fish Commissioners of Rhode Island, 408; Report of the Fish Com-
missioners of Pennsylvania for 1874, 409 ; Report of the Fish Commissioners
of New HampsMi'e for 1874, 410 ; Second Report of the Fish Commissioners
of Vermont, 411; First Report of the Fish Commissioners of Wisconsin,
411; Report of the Fish Commission of Virginia, 435; Seventh Annual
Report of the Fish Commissioners of New York, 437.

General Facts and Statistics : Fish Consumption of "Washington in
1874, 415 ; Inspection of Fish in the Washington City Market, 1875, 436 ;
Fish at Great Depths, 425 ; New Fish Product, 435 ; Gloucester Fisheries
in 1875, 439 ; Fisheries of the Arctic Regions, 439 ; Newfoundland Fisheries
in 1874-5, 427. Special Fisheries Seal: Fisheries and Seal-hunting in
the White Sea and Northern Ocean, 413 ; Close Time for the Capture of
Seals, 414; Bad Condition of the Hair-seal Fisheries, 414. Menhaden:
Menhaden Oil and Guano, 417. Herring: Physical Condition of the
Herring Fishery, 433. Cod: Manufacture of Cod-liver Oil, 428. Appa-
ratus: Objection to the Use of Submerged Net-weirs, 413; Illumination
for Attracting Fish, 428.

(b.) FISH-CULTURE.

Associations : Third Annual Report of the American Fish-culturists' Asso-
ciation, 412; Meeting of the American Fish-culturists' Association, 412.
General Considerations : Effect of Polluted Water on Fishes, 416 ; In-
crease of English Fishes in Tasmania, 419; French Prizes for American
Fish, 426 ; Piscicultural Prizes, 425 ; Fish-culture in China, 427 ; Animal
Incrustation on the "Great Eastern," 432: Hybrid Fish, 418. Particular
Species : Experiments with Young Maine Salmon, 418 ; Salmon in the
San Joaquin, 430 ; Salmon Trade of the Columbia River, 431 ; Marked
Salmon, 432; Salmon in the Sacramento River, 432; United States Salmon-
hatching Establishment, 434 ; Failure in Introducing Salmon and Trout,
439 ; Distribution of Trout Eggs from Tasmania to the Neighboring Colo-
nies, 420; Food for Trout, 433; Mr. C. G. Atkins's Experiments on the
Artiiicial Hatching of the Smelt, 421 ; Importation of the Gourami into
Paris, 420; Seth Green's Artiiicial Hatching of Sturgeon, 422; French
Method of Oyster-culture, 420; Growth of Oysters in France, 439.

TABLE OF CONTENTS. xiii

K. DOMESTIC AND HOUSEHOLD ECONOMY (ccxxix) 441

(a.) THE DWELLING AND ITS FURNITURE.

Treatment of New Wooden Utensils, etc., 442 ; Improved Dwellings and
their Effect on Health and Morals, 453 ; Beautiful Ornament for Booms,
457 ; the Construction of Winding Staircases, 468.

(b.) LIGHTING, HEATING, AND VENTILATION.

A New Light, 442 ; Lamp for Burning Nitric Oxide Gas, 443 ; Nitric Oxide-
bisulphide of Carbon Lamp for Bhotographic Use, 444; New Luminous
Mixture, 445 ; Glycerin as an Illuminant, 451 ; Use of Gas for Light-houses,
441 ; Price of Burning-gas, 442.

(C.) CLOTHING AND ADORNMENT.

Merriman's Water-proof Life-saving Dress, 444; Peroxide of Hydrogen
for Changing Black Hair to a Golden Yellow, 445; Dust-spectacles for
Protection of the Eyes in Various Occupations, 446 ; Renewing Wrinkled
Silk, 455.

(d.) THE LAUNDRY.

Starching Linen, 522 ; Transparent Soap, 441 ; Bohlken's Washing-ma-
chine, 452 ; Washing Woolen Clothing, 455 ; Washing Muslin, Cambric,
French Lawn, etc., 456.

(e.) THE TABLE.

Preservation of Meat, Vegetables, etc., by Acetate of Ammonia, 446 ; Pre-
venting the Curdling of Milk by Oil of Mustard, 446 ; New Method of Pre-
serving Meat, 449; Preservation of Cooked Meat, 449; Patent Cooling
Apparatus for Liquids, 450 ; Improved Refrigerators, 451 ; Method of Pre-
serving Eggs, 456 ; New Mode of Making Bread, 452 ; Artificial Vanilla,
457 ; Effect of Washing upon Vegetables, 458 ; Cheap Preparation of Good
Vinegar, 447 ; Removing Fusel-oil from Liquors, 452 ; Extract of Meat in
Bread, 457 ; Convenient Preparation of Carbonated Water, 447 ; Pasteur's
Process Avith Wine and Beer, 450 ; a New Substitute for Coffee (Sacca Cof-
fee), 453; Australian Method of obtaining Cool Water, 455 ; Yaupon Tea,
457 ; Cover for Water-coolers, 458.

L. MECHANICS AND ENGINEERING (ccxxix) 459

(a.) MATERIALS.

Mortars, Cements, and Slags : Utilizing Furnace Slag, 460 ; Increasing
the Adhesive Power of Cement, 465 ; Cement for Marble and Alabaster,
487; the Strength of Cements and Mortars, 492. Metals Iron: Pig-iron
Production of the United States in 1874, 459 ; Iron Production in France,
460 ; Manganiferous Iron, 460 ; Steel Direct from the Ore, 461 ; Crampton's
Revolving Furnace for Puddling Iron, 462 ; Schmitz's Revolving Furnace-
bars, 484 ; Magnetic Ore Separator, 462 ; Discovering the Character and
Composition of Iron and Steel by Etching, 463 ; Novel Phenomenon dur-
ing the Forging of Metallic Bars, 463 ; Tungsten-steel, 464 ; Etching Iron,
482 ; Organization of the United States Board for Testing Iron and Steel,
489. Wood: Preservation of Timber, 465; Preservation of Timber by
Lime, 466 ; Preservation of Wood by Means of Iron, 466 ; Use of Carbonic-
acid Gas in Drying and Seasoning Timber, 467 ; the Strength of Wood

xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS.

and the Efficiency of the Axe, 467. Brick and Stone : Increasing the Hard-
ness and Durability of Sandstone by Impregnating it with Silicate of
Alumina, 464.
(b.) CONSTRUCTIONS.

Vessels: Construction of Steel Vessels to Resist Pressure, 493. Canals
and Rivers : Report on the Reclamation of the Alluvial Basin of the Mis-
sissippi River, 476 ; Hydraulics in tbe Adirondack Plateau, 478 ; the Thrust
of Embankments, 495; the Suez Canal, 511. Harbors and Docks: Pres-
ervation of Harbors and Roadsteads, 496; an Improved Dry Dock, 508.
Tunnels : the Channel Tunnel, 512. Mines : Gold-mining in the Philip-
pine Islands, 474.

(C.) MOTORS.

The Waves: Utilization of Waves as a Motor Power, 505. Steam: Casing
for Steam-pipes, etc., 473 ; Jesty's Anti-fouling Composition, 478; Prevent-
ing Incrustation in Steam-boilers, 487 ; Copper Lining for Steam-boilers,
487 ; the Evaporation of Water in Steam-boilers, 497 ; New Adaptation of
Screw Propulsion, 504 ; Consumption of Wood by Railways, 473. Road-
ways and Vehicles : Walker's Patent Rolling Cars, 468 ; the Adhesion of
Locomotives to Railway Tracks, 504; Electricity for the Head-light of
Locomotives, 512. Telegraphs : History of Duplex Telegraphy, 471.
Balloons : Balloon Voyage from Buffalo to New Jersey, 472 ; Disastrous
Trip of the Balloon "Zenith," 472; Successful Scientific Ballooning, 500;
Aerial Navigation, 502. Explosives: Apparatus for Recording Signals
Automatically, 470; Heat and Products of Gunpowder Explosions, 479;
Explosive Agents, 479 ; New Monster Cannon of England, 486 ; Electric
Fuses, 488 ; a Monster Blast, 508. Miscellaneous : New Carbonic Engine,
474 ; Liquid Carbonic Acid as a Motive Power, 506.

(d.) MISCELLANEOUS.

Improved Clock-work Governor, 469; Improvements in Miners' Safety-
lamps, 469; Inhalation of Oxygen Mixed with Air, by Divers, etc., 470;
New Speaking and Hearing Trumpet for Divers, 470; the Pyroleter, 482 ;
Cork as a Non-conductor of Heat, 485 ; Carbonic Acid for Extinguishing
Fires in Mines and on Ships, 498 ; the Proposed Flooding of the Sahara
Desert, 509.

M. TECHNOLOGY (eclxxix) 513

(a.) THE LIBERAL ARTS.

Printing and Stamping: Stamping-ink, 513; Photostereotypy, 557.
Engraving and Lithographing : a New Process of Engraving on Cop-
per, 514 ; Slate for Engravers, 514 ; French Method of Engraving on Wood,
514. Writing : Xerography, a Manifold Writing and Printing Process,
513; Writing Pigments of Ancient Manuscripts, 516 ; to Restore Old Writ-
ing, 516; Red Marking-ink for Clothing, 518; Substitute for Ink, 519; a
Writing-machine, 546. Photographing : an Oil-lamp as a Substitute for
the Magnesium Lamp in Photography, 517; Composition for Non-actinic
(Amber-yellow) Glass, 517; Advances in Photography, 517. Modeling
and Casting : Improvement in the Manufacture of Stucco, 518 ; the Hard-
ening of Plaster of Paris, 519; Setting of Plaster of Paris, and Mixture of

TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV

Lime with it, 519 ; Color of Chinese Bronzes, 520. Painting" and Interior
Decoration : Artificial Decoration and Hardening of Sandstone, 520 ; Pro-
tection of Patina, of Different Colors, on Bronze, 521.
(1>.) THE MECHANICAL AND 'CHEMICAL ARTS.

Sizing and Dressing : Starching Linen, 522 ; Paste for Photographs, 523.
-Water-proofing : Water-proofing Composition for Boots, 523. Cleaning
and Bleaching : Rapid Bleaching of Linen, 52-1 ; Rapid Bleaching Proc-
ess, 524; Removal of Stains of Nitric Acid from Woolen Goods and the
Fingers, 525 ; Whitening Wool without Sulphur, 526. Dyeing and Print-
ing : Chrome-yellow, or Green upon Indigo Ground, on Cotton, 525 ; Dye-
ing Feathers Green, 525; Yiolacein, a New Blue Dye-stuff, 527 ; Stamping-
ink, for Cotton and Linen unaffected by Chlorine, 527; Dyeing Horse-
hair, 527 ; New Black Printing Color, 528 ; New and Durable Colors, 528 ;
Iodine Green on Woolen Yarn, 528; Improved Chrome Green, 529; Be-
havior of Aniline Colors toward Infusorial Earth, 529 ; New Dyes of Crois-
sant & Bretonniere, 529; New Colors of Croissant & Bretonniere, 5-49;
Tests for the Principal Dye-stuffs in Colored Fabrics, 550. Antiseptics :
Antiseptic and Physiological Effects of Salicylic Acid, 530. Painting,
Staining, and Varnishing : Coloring Copper Alloys and Silver a Deep
Black, 526 ; Imitation of Walnut, 530 ; on Paint as an Engineering Mate-
rial, 531 ; Varnish for Imitating Gilding on Brass and Bronze, 531 ; Golden
Varnish for Leather, 532 ; Prevention of Yellowing of White Paint, 532.
Oils and Wax : Mucyline, a Composition for Oiling Wool, 523 ; Purifica-
tion of Hydrocarbons employed in Dry or Chemical Cleaning, 526 ; Kekune
Oil, or Huile de Bancoul, 534 ; Oil from the Carapa-tree, 534 ; Vaseline, a
New Petroleum Product, 534; Manufacture of Stearic Acid, 537.

Plating and Coating with Metals : Tinning various Metals in the
Humid Way, 535; Gilding Glass, 535; Plating with Aluminium, 537;
Rendering Iron Wire of a Silvery Whiteness, 539. Alloys : Color of Chinese
Bronzes, 520 ; New Phosphor-bronzes, 535 ; a New Silver-like Alloy, 537 ;
Phosphor-bronze, 558. Welding and Soldering: Soldering Platinized
Glass Surfaces to Metals, 545. Polishing : Gaudin's Polishing Paper, 538 ;
Polishing-cloth for Brass, 544. Cementing : Cement for Marble and Ala-
baster, 538. Casting and Fusing : Filling Hollow Brass Articles with
Molten Iron, 538 ; Manufacture of Copper and Brass Wire, 546.

Sundry Chemical Processes : Preparation of Absolute Alcohol, 538 ;
Caustic Soda and Potash, 540.

Treatment of Raw and Simple Materials used in the Arts : The
Microscopic Study of Fibres used in the Fabrication of Paper, 541 ; Use
of the Wild Rice Plant in Paper-making, 542 ; Value of the Milk-weed as
a Fibre-plant, 542 ; Preparation of Wood-paste for Plates, etc., 543 ; Vul-
canizing of Caoutchouc at Common Temperatures, 539; Preparation of
Artificial Caoutchouc, 542; Preparation of Ebonite, 543; the Japanese
Leather-paper, 548 ; De la Bastie's Hard or Tempered Glass, 554 ; De la
Bastie's Experiments in Tempering Glass, 556 ; Explanation of so-called
Hardened Glass, 557 ; Glass manufactured from Sulphate of Soda, or Cal-
cined Glass, 540. Utilizing Waste Products : Utilization of Leather
Waste, 545. Tanning and Dressing : New Treatment of Hides in Tan-
ning, 540. Miscellaneous : Glazing Paper by Paraffin, 544 ; Improved

xvi TABLE OF CONTEXTS.

Mode of Closing Barrel Hoops, 545 ; Cutting and Boring Caoutchouc Corks,
540 ; Universal ( las-lamp fur Laboratories, 553.

N. MATERIA MEDICA, THERAPEUTICS, AND HYGIENE 559

(a.) MATERIA MEDICA.

The Poisonous Properties of Alcohols, 559 ; a New Sedative, 559 ; Ground-
wurt as a Febrifuge, 5G0; Effect of Morphia on Secretions, 500; Therapeu-
tical Uses of Hot Baths, 5G1 ; Introducing Medicines into the System by-
Galvanism, 5G1; Action of Jaborandi, 562; Jaborandi, a New Brazilian
Remedy, 570 ; Intravenous Use of Chloral for Anaesthesia, 503.

("b.) DISEASES AND THEIR CURE.

Diabetes Hereditary, 502; Pernicious Anaemia, a recently defined Dis-
ease, 504 ; De Che'gain on Headaches, 505 ; Curability of Pulmonary Dis-
ease, 500 ; Danger of Eating Fish Improperly Cured, or Caught immediately
after the Spawning Season, 507; Picric Acid as a Test for Albumen in
Urine, 508 ; Action of Air on the Lungs in Certain Cases, 570 ; Hydrate of
Chloral in Infantile Convulsions, 570. Miscellaneous : New Process in
Dental Surgery, 503 ; Cause of Discomfort in Tobacco-smoking, 504 ; Re-
lation of Bacteria to Putrefactive Disease, 500.

(C.) THE PUBLIC HEALTH.

The Poisonous Properties of Alcohols, 559 ; Detection of Arsenic in Tissues,
559 ; Detection of Fusel-oil in Alcohol, 560 ; Salicylic Acid, 508 ; Compara-
tive Antiseptic Effects of Carbolic and Salicylic Acids, 509 ; Selection of
the "Water Supply of Cities, 507.

O. MISCELLANEOUS 571

(a.) INSTITUTIONS.

America : Meeting of the American Fish-culturists' Association, 585 ; Pro-
ceedings of the Centennial of Chemistry, 585 ; National Park in the Island
of Mackinaw, 580; Annual Report of the Librarian of Congress, 580; An-
nual Report of the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of
the Territories for 1873, 573 ; Annual Report of the Peabody Museum of
Archaeology and Ethnology, 589; Report of the American Museum of
Natural History, New York, for 1874, 571; First Annual Report of the
Zoological Society of Cincinnati, 572 ; Bequest to the Cincinnati Society
of Natural History, 577 ; Kirtland School of Natural Sciences, 571 ; Normal
(Illinois) School of Natural Sciences, 572; Arrangements for a Botanical
Garden in Chicago, 574; First Annual Report of the Geological and Agri-
cultural Survey of Texas, 573.

Other Countries : Fourth Meeting of the French Association, 581 ; An-
nual Report of the Council of the Zoological Society of London, 581 ; Re-
port of the Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction, 582; Royal So-
ciety's Catalogue of Learned Societies and Scientific Papers, 1864-73,584;
Belgian Exhibition of 1870, 583 ; Twelfth Congress of the Italian Scientific
Association, 584.

(b.) MISCELLANEOUS.

The Chess Problem of the Eight Queens, 574 ; Report on the Population
of the Earth, 575; Japanese Game of Chess, 575; Report of the Icelandic

TABLE OF CONTENTS. xvii

Commission to Alaska, 576 ; Scientific Balloonists, 577 ; Index of Patents
from 1790 to 1873, 579 ; Deciphering Charred Manuscript, 579 ; Astronomy
in Brazil, 579 ; Sums Voted by the British Parliament for Scientific In-
struction, 580 ; Meteorology in China, 580 ; International Congress of Silk-
culturists, 582 ; Additional Pay to the Survivors of the " Polaris," 587 ; the
Lyell Medal, 587 ; Annual Record of Publications in Geology, Mineralogy,
and Paleontology, 587 ; Loan Exhibition of Scientific Apparatus, 588 ; List
of the Merchant Vessels of the United States, 588 ; International Astro-
nomical Society, 589.

P. NECROLOGY 591

Q. BIBLIOGRAPHY 597

R. INDEX TO THE REFERENCES 624

ALPHABETICAL INDEX 629

GENERAL SUMMARY

OF

SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTEIAL PEGGEESS
DUEING THE YEAE 1875.

MATHEMATICS AND THEORETICAL MECHANICS.

Ox account of the importance of the cultivation of pure
Mathematics among American scientists, we note first that
the editor of The Analyst, Professor J. E. Hendricks, of Des
Moines, Iowa, states that a number of his subscribers have
concluded to discontinue their subscriptions, since the subjects
discussed in that mathematical journal are 'too difficult, and
some of his friends advise him to make the contents of The
Analyst somewhat more elementary, and to give small premi-
ums to clubs, prizes, etc. He states, however, that the pub-
lication was inaugurated, not with the hope of being able to
make it popular at present, but for the purpose of affording
a medium for the interchange of thought by students and
teachers of mathematics. Hence he does not anticipate that
any person will subscribe who will not derive from it knowl-
edge to the extent of its cost ; and that The Analyst will
continue to be a medium for interchange of thought, but
will not become to any great extent purely an educational
journal. The great good that will result to the progress of
mathematical studies in this country by the presence among
us of a good mathematical journal is sufficient to justify
Mr. Hendricks in his self-imposed labors and expensive un-
dertaking.

American mathematicians have contributed two valuable
papers to the theory of the movements of systems of planets,
etc. Of these, the first, by Newcomb, on the "General Inte-
grals of Planetary Motion," was published by the Smithsonian
Institution ; the second, by Hill, on the " Develoj3rnent of the
Perturbative Function," is to be found in The Analyst.

The theoretical researches of Le Verrier into the movements

xx GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

and general perturbations of the eight principal planets hav-
ing at length been brought to a conclusion, he has presented
an account of them to the French Academy of Sciences, and
announces that his tables of Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune
are rapidly approaching completion.

The somewhat startling announcement recently made by
Mr. Stockwell, of Ohio, that he had discovered important
errors in the mathematical portions of the accepted lunar
theories, and which he has undertaken to correct, has, we be-
lieve, been negatived by the reply of Schjellerup, of Copen-
hagen, according to whom the error is apparently on Mr.
StockwelPs own side.

Veltmann applies to the general law of movements of three
or more bodies the calculus of determinants, and in this way
arrives at some interesting formula?.

ASTRONOMY.

Observers, Observatories, and Instruments. The publica-
tion of the excellent series of astronomical engravings has
been concluded by the Observatory at Harvard College.
The text is also prepared, and will probably be published
immediately on the appointment of Professor Winlock's suc-
cessor.

The observatory erected on the grounds of Columbia Col-
lege, in New York, has been connected with the systems of
telegraph lines throughout the city, and will, it is hoped,
soon be in a position to systematically furnish standard time
to that city.

The great Cassegrainian reflector, of 2G inches' aperture,
constructed by Dr. Henry Draper, has been properly mount-
ed in a dome, with every convenience for use, at his father's
country-seat at Hastings-on-the-Hudson ; but its great pow-
ers have not, as yet, on account of bad weather, been fully
demonstrated. For the sake of astronomy in America, it is
to be hoped that he may be able to wrest from many business
cares some time for the prosecution of astronomical physics.

In connection with the observations of the transit of Ve-
nus, it should be mentioned that the American parties owe a
great deal of their success in photographic matters to the
friendly counsel of Dr. Draper, who very generously devot-
ed two months' time to the proper outfit of the parties in

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. X xi

this respect, and who has received in return, from the Tran-
sit of Venus Commission, a beautiful gold medal, as an ac-
knowledgment of his gratuitous services.

The observatory erected several years ago by Professor
Mayer in connection with Lehigh University, and now for
some time unused, has been placed in charge of Mr. C. L.
Doolittle.

The directorship of the observatory at Cincinnati, which
has been vacant since 1872, has recently been filled by the
election of Mr. Ormond Stone.

The hopes expressed in the Annual for 1874, as to the
speedy realization of the great project of Mr. James Lick,
of California, have been somewhat dampened by the occur-
rence of a legal controversy which seems an inevitable
attendant of every great bequest for the advancement of
learning. The orio-inal trustees havinsr returned into Mr.
Lick's hands the trust confided to them, he appears now,
from what we can gather, to have personally interested him-
self in the execution of his own plan; and it is announced
that he has made a formal offer to the trustees of Santa
Clara County, in w T hich he proposes to erect his observatory,
on the summit of Mount Hamilton, provided the proper
authorities will be at the expense of a well-graded carriage-
road from the base to the summit.

The rage for large objectives continues as active as ever.
It is said that the glass for making one of 30 inches in di-
ameter is now held by Yale College.

The report of the National Observatory of the Argentine
Confederation for the year ending November, 1874, has been
received, and it appears therefrom that Dr. Gould, the di-
rector, has labored with an energy rarely equaled for the con-
summation of the great works undertaken by him.

For the new observatory at Quito, under the superintend-
ence of Father Menten, a fine telescope has been constructed
by Merz. It has a clear aperture of 9 Paris inches, and a
focal length of 117 inches.

It is stated that Professor Gonzalez, director of the Na-
tional Observatory at Bogota, has resigned his position in
order to establish a new and private observatory, at an alti-
tude of nine thousand feet, in latitude 4-J north.

The new observatory at Oxford lias received as its direc-

xxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

tor the Rev. C. Pritchard, Savilian professor of astronomy at
the university.

The observatory at Twickenham, belonging to Mr. Bishop,
and for a long time occupied by Mr. Hind, as observer, is
shortly to be dismantled, and its instruments presented to
the Royal Observatory at Naples.

The astronomical school established at Montsouris, under
the authority of the French Bureau of Longitudes, was opened
on the 3d of October with six pupils. The period of study
is six months.

The new meridian room, intended for the use of the French
Bureau of Longitudes, was opened on the 2d of October.

A magnificent astronomical establishment is beinc: erected
at Potsdam for the express purpose of studying the sun.

The French government has taken steps toward the estab-
lishment of a physical observatory in the neighborhood of
Paris, under the direction of Janssen. The building will
probably be located either at Versailles or Montelhuy.

Le Verrier proposes to furnish ordinary standard time by
telegraphic communication to all the public clocks of Paris.

The observatory of the University of Moscow, Russia, has
published the second volume of its annals, which contains val-
uable photographs of a series of sixteen drawings of the belts
of Jupiter, and of the physical appearance of Coggia's comet.

The Melbourne Observatory has published the first " Mel-
bourne General Catalogue of Stars."

Mr. C. W. Pritchett has received an endowment of $30,000
for the observatory of the Pritchett Academy, at Glasgow,
Missouri. The observatory possesses one of Alvan Clark's
12-inch equatorials.

The observatory of the Lehigh University, at Bethlehem,
Pa., organized by Professor A. M. Mayer, has secured Mr.
Doolittle as astronomer. Mr. Doolittle Avas formerly on the
Northwestern Boundary Survey, and hopes to make good
use of his present opportunities.

The observatory at Gettysburg, Pa., has been placed in
charge of Professor P. H. Bickee.

Mr. Sayce has given some interesting items with reference
to the early history of astronomy among the Chaldeans.
According to him, astronomy was brought to this people by
the Acadians, who, when they came westward from the mount-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. xxiii

ains of Elam, found a cognate race already settled in Chaldea.
Having with them built the great cities of Babylonia, they
were themselves subsequently, between the 30th and 40th
centuries B.C., conquered by the Semites, who are known to
history as the Chaldeans. By this ancient people the divis-
ions of the zodiac, the days of the week, the months, and the
year were established. Four and sixty were their most fa-
vorite subdivisions and multiples.

Mr. T. J. Lowry, of the Coast Survey, describes a new in-
strument based upon the principle of the sextant, by which
two adjacent angles can be at once measured by one observ-
er. It therefore allows one person, by observing three dis-
tant stations, to fix his position in the three-point problem ;
the new instrument will doubtless prove of great service in
surveying.

Mr. Christie states that he has been employing for a year
past the photometer invented by him, and finds that the prob-
able error of a stellar magnitude is only the twentieth part.
A feeble red star is, according to him, more easily distin-
guished than a feeble blue star.

It is .proposed, on the occasion of the celebration of the
centenary of the Genevan Society of Arts, founded in 1776,
to distribute prizes to the makers of those chronometers
which withstand the somewhat severe test applied by the
committee of examination.

The astronomical necrology embraces Mr. Henry Twit-
chell, who died on the 26th of February at Cincinnati, at the
age of 59. Mr. Twitchell was for twenty years the honored
assistant and the principal observer at the observatory of
that city. Strictly speaking, he was the contriver of the
first chronograph ever constructed.

Hofrath Hennert Schwabe died, at the age of 85, at Dessau,
Germany. His discovery, after forty years of observation, of
the periodical nature of the phenomena of the solar spots,
will long remain a brilliant example of the value of persever-
ing; observations.

The Sun. The most important researches on the solar
phenomena have been those of Professor Langley, of Pitts-
burgh. As the result of some six years' patient observations
he has been able greatly to add to our knowledge of the pe-
culiarities of the sun. After having succeeded in optical

xxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

analyses of the structure of the solar surface, as was ex-
plained in the Annual for 1S74, he has now called to his aid
photometry and the thermo-electric pile. He finds that the
nuclei of the solar spots are cooler than the neighboring bright
portions of the sun's surface, but in general warmer than the
limb of the sun as seen through the solar atmosphere. He
lias, moreover, shown that the light and heat which we re-
ceive from the sun emanates from the superficies of the nu-
cleus, which is covered by a thin layer of gaseous material,
which latter absorbs botli heat and light ; but in so doing-
exercises a distinct selective power in that the absorption of
the lower or heat rays of the spectrum is to the absorption
of the visual rays as one to six. He finds, moreover, that a
sensible amount of heat is received from those portions of the
lower envelope that are distant thirty seconds of arc from
the visible limb of the sun.

Pickering and Strange have investigated, photometrically,
the amount of light absorbed by the solar atmosphere. The
probable error of the result is exceedingly small, and shows
that the lio-ht at the edo-e is about four tenths of that at the
centre. It appears to them that there is a slightly different
distribution of the light across the polar and the equatorial
diameters.

Professor Mayer has continued to develop his method of
obtaining the isothermals of the solar disk, and is now hav-
ing a telescope arranged for the purpose of making continu-
ous observations in this novel and interesting field. He sug-
gests that the discordance in results obtained by Secchi and
Langley may possibly be due to the fact that these observ-
ers have thrown the image of the sun upon inclined instead
of horizontal disks of paper, thereby introducing superficial
currents of air, whose presence lie found extremely deleteri-
ous to his own results, and which were almost entirely obvi-
ated by employing a perfectly horizontal plane of projection.

Although our review strictly begins with November, 1874,
yet we will not omit to notice the work of Violle, published
a little earlier than that date, on the effective temperature of
the sun. Assuming that the mean emissive power of the sun
is sensibly equal to that of steel in fusion, Violle concludes
that the true temperature of the sun is about two thousand
decrees.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. X xv

As the first-fruits of the labors of the spectroscopic exam-
ination of the spectra of transparent substances, Lockyer an-
nounces the probable existence in the solar reversing layer
of strontium, cadmium, lead, copper, cerium, and potassium.

The eclipse of the sun of the 6th of April was successfully
observed, the photographic observations in Siam being es-
pecially successful. It is considered that evidence of high im-
portance was obtained bearing upon the general nature of the
spectrum of the coronal atmosphere; the tendency being to
conclude that the higher regions of the solar envelope differ
chemically from the lower regions; the lower portions, in fact,
being composed of less complex chemicals at a high temper-
ature, while the lower temperature of the upper portions al-
lows of the formation of more complex bodies.

Fuhg has published a discussion of numerous observations
of the diameter of the sun, and finds no difference between the
polar and equatorial diameters. The views of Father Rosa
as to the variable diameter of the sun have been already
noticed by us. These views have been lately defended by
Secchi, as the editor of the posthumous papers of Father
Rosa.

The Planets. Le Verrier has presented to the Paris Acade-
my of Sciences his numerical tables of the movements of Sat-
urn. They are based principally upon the observations at
Greenwich and Paris. This completes his work for all the
bodies of the solar system.

The measurements obtained by Colonel Tennant by means
of Airy's double-image micrometer during the transit of Ve-
nus have been subjected by him to some discussion, and he
thinks he has a decided indication of the elliptic form of the
disk of the planet Venus.

Dr. Galle has published the results of his discussion of the
observations of the asteroid Flora, which were made in con-
cert by various observatories for the determination of the
solar parallax. His definitive result is 8.87", which agrees
very closely with the preliminary results derived by M. Pui-
seux from French observations of contact. From the con-
course of various methods to its determination, we may be
sure that this important element will soon be accurately
known. No results for the value of the solar parallax, based
on measurements of photographs, have yet been published.

2

((

= 8.86"

a

= 8.81"

it

= 8.85"

tc

= 8.87"

t<

=8.87"

xxvi GENERAL BUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

The following table presents some of the recently pub-
lished values of the solar parallax:

From Cornu's experiments, using Bradley's aberration

constant parallax = 8. 88"

From Foueault's experiments, using Struve's aberration.

From opposition of Mars, 18G2

From Le Verrier's discussion of transits of Venus, 17GI

and 1769

From Le Verrier's discussion of meridian observations

of Venus

From Galle's discussion of the observations of Flora. . .
From Puiseux's preliminary computation of transit of

Venus observations, 1874 " =8.85"

To which we may add from NewcomVs " Investigation of
the Distance of the Sun :"

From lunar equation of the earth parallax = 8. 81"

From parallactic inequality of the moon " =8.84"

From Fowalky's discussion of transit of Venus, 1760.. " =8.86"
From meridian observations of Mars, 1862 " =8.84"

Mr. Marth calls the attention of possessors of large tele-
scopes to the ease with which they may make observations
of the movements of the satellites of Saturn and Jupiter, as
he is anxious that observations should be made for the im-
provement of the theory of the satellites of Saturn.

The new asteroids discovered since the date of our pre-
vious list are as follows :

No. Name. Date 1S75. Discoverer.

141 Lumen January 13 Paul Henry, at Paris.

142 ? January 28 J. Palisa, at Pola.

143 Adria February 23 J. Palisa, at Pola.

144 Vibilia June 4 C. H. F. Peters, at Clinton.

145 Adeona June 4 C. H. F. Peters, at Clinton.

1 16 Lucina June 8 A. Borelly, at Marseilles.

147 Protogenia July 11 Schulhof, at Berlin.

148 ? August 7 Prosper Henry, at Paris.

149 ? October 6 Perrotin, at Toulouse.

150 ? October 18 J. C. Watson, at Ann Arbor.

151 ? November 1 J. Palisa, at Pola.

152 ? November 2 Paul Henry, at Paris.

153 ? November 2 J. Palisa, at Pola.

154 ? November 4 Prosper Henry, at Paris.

155 ? Novembers J. Palisa, at Pola.

156 ? November 22 .... J. Palisa, at Pola.

1 57 ? December 1 A. Borelly, at Marseilles.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. xxvii

These asteroids have, when first found, generally appeared
as stars of the twelfth or thirteenth magnitudes; whence
we may realize the extreme care with which the heavens
must be searched by the asteroid hunter.

It is proposed at the Paris Observatory to institute sys-
tematic observations looking to the detection of any intra-
mercurial planets. It is intended to photograph the disk
of the sun daily, when it is believed the intra -mercurial
planets, if any exist, will be observed photographically as
thev are crossing;: the disk of the sun.

The drawings of the appearances of the planets have been
undertaken with especial interest. Of these we may men-
tion a series made by M. Knobel of twenty-four drawings
of Jupiter, and a similar series by Dr. Lohse at Bothkamp.
The great equatorial at Washington has also been employed
in this field, both by Professor Holden and by Mr. Trouvelot,
who is so well known for his beautiful drawings made at
Cambridge by the aid of the Harvard College refractor.
Terby, of Brussels, is editing the long-lost work of Schroeter
on the planet Mars, embracing over two hundred drawings.

Mr. Todd, formerly of Amherst, Massachusetts, now of the
Observatory at Washington, contributes a good series of
observations of Jupiter's satellites, extending over four
years. Should he be able to continue this series for several
years longer at Washington, it will form an important con-
tribution to our knowledge of these satellites, and also of the
time of the rotation of the earth itself.

Flammarion has observed and studied carefully the bright-
ness and color of Jupiter's satellites. Schmidt and Heis have
published in full their observations of the Zodiacal Light.
It is to be hoped that the observations of Rev. J. Jones may
also one day see the light.

Gylden's method of computing the special perturbations
of the asteroids has been applied by Boeklund to the prep-
aration of tables of the movements of the asteroid Iphi-
genia.

Comets and Meteors. During 1875 we have received no
announcement of the discovery of any new comet; but two
well-known and exceedingly faint periodical comets have
been observed a few times. The record for the year is
therefore

xxviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

No. Observed.

I. Enckc's comet January 2G, 187"), by llolden, at Washington.

II. Winnecke's comet February 8, 1875, by Stephan, at Marseilles.

The fine comet which was visible in 1874, and known as
Co^^ia's comet, gave occasion for several interesting ol>-
servations, some of which have been published during the
past year. Among these, we notice those having a bearing
upon its physical constitution, such as Mr. Ranyard's polar-
iscopic observations, showing the absence of a sensible
amount of polarized light, whence he concludes that the
substance of the tail is either incandescent, or else made up
of atoms which are small compared with the wave-lengths
of the light. Mr. Christie's spectroscopic observations show
that in the spectrum of the comet two bright bands were
found on every occasion, sensibly coincident with the two
brighter bands of carbon dioxide. The spectrum of the
nucleus was continuous, and appeared to contain numerous
bright bands, and occasionally dark lines. The other ob-
servations, in so far as they have been published on this
body, were referred to in our previous volume.

Secchi's observations of the spectrum of Coggia's comet
show that it agrees best with the spectrum of the oxides
of carbon ; but the polariscope shows that the continuous
spectrum was only the reflected light of the sun ; and Yogel,
in a general review of the questions relating to cometary
spectra, concludes that there is some probability that the
gases present in comets are hydrocarbons.

Encke's comet, one of the faintest comets familiar to
astronomers, has been observed in the northern hemisphere
at Washington with the twenty-six-inch refractor, and at
Marseilles with the large reflector of that observatory. Ac-
counts of equally successful observations have also reached
us from the Melbourne Observatory.

Winnecke's comet has been observed at the Harvard Col-
lege Observatory.

Highly interesting analyses of two meteorites have lately
been made by Mr. A. W. Wright, of New Haven, which, be-
sides being valuable as careful determinations of the chemical
constituents of the two specimens examined, directly attack
the question of the relation of meteorites to comets. Pro-
fessor Wright finds that, under suitable conditions of press-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. X xix

lire, the gases extracted from the meteorite itself (and there-
fore of an extra-terrestrial origin) show the same three bands
which are characteristic of some of the comets, and that not
only are these bands in precisely the same relative positions
as the comet-bands, but they have likewise the same relative
intensity.

In a second paper on the same subject, Wright concludes,
first, that the stony meteorites are distinguished from the
iron ones by having the oxides of carbon, chiefly the dioxide,
as their characteristic gases, instead of hydrogen. Second,
the proportion of carbon dioxide given off is much greater
at low than at high temperatures, and is sufficient to mask
the hydrogen in the spectrum. Third, the amount of the
gases contained in a large meteorite, or a cluster of such
bodies serving as a cometary nucleus, is sufficient to form
the train as ordinarily observed. Fourth, the spectrum is
closely identical with that of several of the comets.

The question as to the identity of Biela's comet and that
discovered by Pogson, at Madras, on the 2d and 3d of De-
cember, 1872, has been investigated by Professor Bruhns.
He demonstrates that there was no connection between the
two, nor even between Pogson's comet and the shower of
shooting-stars of the preceding 27th of November.

Professor Kirkwood concludes that, besides the shower of
meteors that occurs on the 12th of November, another class
of meteors has been occasionally observed on the 14th of
November, which latter is probably a small fragment of the
principal group, having been separated from them within
historical times, in consequence of considerable perturbations
either by Uranus or the earth.

The August meteors were well observed in France by the
members of the Meteor Association organized by the joint
scientific associations of France.

Fixed Stars. Of stellar atlases, the only original ones that
have been published of late are :

First, that of Dr. Behrmann, which embraces the region
between the south pole and 20 south declination, and gives
the position of all stars visible to the naked eye. Although
the magnitudes of the stars were actually observed by Dr.
Behrmann in the course of ten months, yet all the other data
of the atlas have been compiled from the older star catalogues.

xxx GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

His atlas, therefore, although valuable as the best southern
atlas at present at hand, must expect to be superseded by
the "Uranometria Argentina," so soon as the latter shall be
published by Dr. Gould. This important work of Dr. Gould
is, we are assured, already in the hands of the engravers, and
may be expected within a reasonable time.

Second, the continuation of the famous star charts known
as Chacornac's, a work which has recently been revived un-
der Le Verrier at the Paris Observatory.

Third, the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg
has published, under the editorship of Schjellerup, a "Urano-
metria" composed in the middle of the tenth century by the
Persian astronomer, Al Sufi. This chart of the heavens seems
to be compiled from original observations ; and the changes
of color and brightness undergone by the stars since that
time, as shown by comparing Sufi's and Argelander's ura-
nometria?, are of special interest.

A catalogue of absolute right ascensions of stars has been
compiled by Professor Gylden, of Stockholm, for use in the
reduction of his own observations at that place. The posi-
tions given by him, although entitled to great weight, yet
can scarcely be considered to supersede those published a
few years ago by Professor Newcomb.

Villarceau announces a method of determining both the
aberration of lijyht and the motion of the solar svstem among
the stars, by means of observations in both hemispheres. It
is to be hoped that this plan will be put into execution.

The Melbourne Observatory, under the direction of Mr. El-
lery, has published the first "Melbourne General Catalogue
of Stars," based upon observations made from 1863 to 1870.
This contains the places of 1227 stars, with all the auxiliary
constants necessary for their convenient use ; and the proper
motions of the stars have been determined with as much ac-
curacy as was practicable. A remarkable star, Epsilon Indi,
is found to have certainly the very large annual proper motion
of 4.6", and is an inviting subject for the determination of the
annual parallax.

Mr. E.J. Stone has published the Cape Catalogue of 1159
stars observed between 1856 and 1861.

The scintillation of the stars continues to be investigated
by Montigny, who has invented an ingenious apparatus

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. xxxi

which he calls a scintillometer. He finds that those stars
which scintillate or twinkle least are those whose spectra
show numerous well-pronounced lines, sometimes united in
zones.

Messrs. Smythe and Duncan have shown that the star
known as B.A.C. 793 has an unusual large proper motion,
and that it is important to continue observations thereon.

Especial activity has been manifested in the computation
of the orbits of double stars, for which work a great mass of
accurate observations has now accumulated, through the la-
bors especially of the Struves, Herschel, Dawes, Dembowski,
South, and Secchi, not to mention a host of others w r ho have
contributed to a less decree. Of those whose orbits have
been investigated during the past year, we note that of TO
Ophiuehi, as computed by Flammarion ; Zeta Aquarii and
Gamma Leonis, as computed by Doberck, of Markree.

Mr. Alvan Clark calls attention to the rapid angular motion
of Ma Herculis.

An investigation of the movements of the double star 42
Comce Berenices has been made by Otto Struve, and his assist-
ant Dobiago. They conclude that the most probable period
of revolution of the two stars is twenty-five and seven-tenths
years ; but the plane of the orbit of these stars passes so di-
rectly through the solar system that the elliptic orbit it-
self appears as a straight line. The computations of Struve
have therefore been based entirely upon the observed angu-
lar distances of the two stars. In the course of this investi-
gation, Struve takes occasion to state that, in observing very
close double stars which appear sometimes as an oblong sin-
gle star, the centering of the object-glasses of the telescope is
an important consideration, as a very small error would lead
to a considerable error in the estimated position-angles of the
two stars.

Another double star whose orbit has been investigated is
Eta Coronce, concerning which Mr. Wilson states that recent
observations show a systematic divergence from the orbit
published in 1856 by Winnecke. The hypothesis that best
suits all known observations is that at each successive revo-
lution of the stars there exists some shortening of the period.

One of the most extensive works undertaken by Sir John
Herschel was the compilation of a catalogue of all known

xxxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

double stars : a work which he did not live to complete, but
bequeathed in its incomplete state to the Royal Astronom-
ical Society, by whose authority it has been published as a
catalogue of 10,300 multiple and double stars. A most im-
portant portion of this work was left uncompleted by its au-
thor, and has not been published by his editors. We refer
to the descriptions of the distances, magnitudes, and colors
of the stars. This important defect in the work, as it now
stands, will, we have reason to hope, soon be supplied by the
publication by the Naval Observatory at Washington of a
far more important catalogue of double stars that has been
in process of compilation during some years past by Mr.
Burnham, of Chicago. This gentleman, by far the most in-
dustrious amateur astronomer in this country, has continued
to make numerous contributions to this branch of astronomy,
his labors beins: confined to the detection of new and ex-
tremely difficult companions to well-known stars.

The Hamburg Observatory has issued its first official pub-
lication in the shape of a memoir by Helmert on the stars of
the cluster in Sobieski's Shield, the same cluster which was
studied by Lamont in 1836. But slight movements of the
individual stars can be deduced from a comparison of Hel-
mert's and Lamont's observations, although they were sepa-
rated by an interval of forty years.

Nebulae. The nebulae have been studied of late from several
points of view. Drawings of the more famous ones have
been made in the United States at Washington by Holden,
and at Cambridge and Washington by Trouvelot. In the
southern hemisphere we note several contributions by Ellery
at Melbourne.

The question of secular changes in the appearances of neb-
ula? can, it would seem, be best decided by making careful
drawings of them at the present time as seen through tele-
scopes of very feeble power, such as were necessarily used by
the early astronomers. In this way Temple has traced the
outline of the nebula near Merope, describing it as elliptical;
while Wolf, at Paris, using a somewhat larger telescope, per-
ceived two nuclei distant seven seconds from each other.
Stephan having been unable to discern the nebula with his
large telescope during the winter of 1874-5, it has been con-
cluded that this nebula is certainly variable.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. xxxiii

One of the most valuable catalogues of nebulae yet pub-
lished is that of Schultz, of Upsala, who has observed the ex-
act positions of about five hundred of these bodies with ref-
erence to neighboring stars, thereby preparing the way for
determinations, to be made possibly a hundred years hence,
of the proper motions of these nebulae.

PHYSICS OF THE GLOBE.

Tides. One of the most useful works that has appeared
of late years on the subject of tides has been published by
the Coast Survey. Its author, Professor Ferrel, has given in
detail the formulae needed in the discussion of lona; series of
tidal observations, and has treated specially the subject of
shallow water tides. Professor Ferrel has also been able to
deduce the mass of the moon with a high degree of accuracy,
after taking; account of the influence of friction.

Mr. Rohrs, in a paper on tidal retardation, has discussed
the problem of maximum retardation on a globe entire-
ly covered by a sea whose depth is constant for all points
in the same latitude, but varies from the equator to the
poles.

Sir William Thomson announces his conclusion that the
much-vexed question as to the generality and correctness of
Laplace's tidal investigations must be at last decided in favor
of that great mathematician, and that therefore Airy's criti-
cism falls to the ground, as also that of Ferrel. Airy's reply
to Thomson will probably serve to prolong the discussion
of this obscure but highly important question.

Seismology. The investigations of La Saulx upon the
earthquakes of Western Prussia have led to the authorization
by the Prussian government of the establishment of a large
number of seismometric stations in the volcanic region near
Bonn.

Rev. O. Fisher has communicated a paper to the Cam-
bridge Philosophical Society, in which he states that his at-
tempt is to arrive at more definite conclusions in regard to
the elevating force which has raised mountain ranges and
caused the wrinkling of the crust of the earth.

The earthquake phenomena of Southern Austria have been

elucidated in a valuable memoir by Suess, who shows that

the centres from which earthquakes emanate are. in that

2*

xxxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

country, all ranged along certain straight lines or belts,
which, in one remarkable instance, coincides with a river
valley so perfectly as to afford the basis for very plausible
speculations as to the dependence of the earthquakes upon
the infiltration of surface water.

A series of terrible earthquake shocks is reported to have
occurred in the month of May in the province of Borussa, in
Asia Minor. Hundreds of houses have been destroyed and
lives lost.

Perrey has published another great catalogue of earth-
quakes ; the present volume being especially devoted to the
year 1871.

The minute vibrations that for some days attend and gen-
erally precede severe earthquakes have been especially ob-
served and studied by Serpieri, who in " Meteorologia Itali-
ana" gives some of his conclusions as to the use of the pen-
dulum seismograph in predicting earthquakes.

Terrestrial Magnetism and Auroras. One of the finest pub-
lications in the department of terrestrial magnetism is the
quarto volume recently received from the observatory at
Trevandrum. This is the first of a series of volumes pub-
lished at the expense of his Highness the Maharajah of Tra-
vancore. Dr. Broun, who was the director of the observa-
tory from 1852 to 1865, is the editor of the present volume,
and in it he has given a fine example of the good results that
may be obtained by a careful study of every possible source
of error in the instruments and observations.

Equally extensive is the large quarto published by the
Dutch government in Java, and giving in detail the mag-
netic and meteorological observations made from I860 to
1870 at Batavia under the direction of Bergsma. Many
general results are given in the Introduction to this volume,
and the whole contains a most important contribution to
our knowledge of the climate of that portion of the Pacific
Ocean.

The subject of " terrestrial electricity " has been studied on
a grand scale by Schwendler, electrician to the Indian gov-
ernment. Over ten thousand observations made under his
direction during the past six years on telegraph lines in In-
dia have shown that there is a uniform ground current from
east to west, and have paved the way for improved methods

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. xxxv

of investigation, which it is believed have, ere this, been au-
thorized by the Indian government.

One of the most valuable contributions to the literature of
the subject of auroras consists in the new general catalogue
of auroras compiled by Fritz, of Zurich, and published by the
Vienna Academy of Sciences. This author has added even
to the great catalogue of Lovering, in that he had access to
documents now for the first time rendered accessible. He
has employed the great mass of data collected by him in a
minute investigation into the geographical distribution of
the aurora, and concludes that auroral frequency has to do
with the distribution of ice in the arctic regions.

Highly interesting auroral observations have been made on
the auroras by Tromholdt, who concludes that there is a
connection between auroras and halos; but the most valua-
ble contribution on this subject is from Weyprecht, in the
preliminary reports on the results of the Austro-Hungarian
North Pole Expedition of 1872 and 1873. According to him,
very intense auroras were invariably followed by storms.
Quite regular arches, without color or radiation, exercised no
apparent influence on the needle.

METEOROLOGY.

Observers, Institutions, Instruments, etc. Of government
establishments, the most important change has been that at
the Hamburg Seewarte, which has been purchased by the
German government. The " German Seewarte " at Hamburg
is now organized as an office of the Royal Hydrographic Bu-
reau. To it are assigned the duties, first, of caring for ocean
meteorology and the interests of navigation ; second, of show-
ing storm warnings on the German coast ; and, third, the in-
vestigation of the meteorological conditions on which storms

CD CD

depend. It seems to be intended to abandon all studies of
climatology, and to restrict its field of activity quite exclu-
sively to simultaneous observations of the atmosphere, or to
meteorology proper.

The meteorological service of Bengal, under Mr. Blandford,
lias begun the publication of daily weather maps for the In-
dian provinces. Reports are published daily, in addition to
the bulletins, showing the weather. The reports of 145 rain-
gauges, in addition to six first-class and ten second-class sta-
tions, have been published.

xxxvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

These will form an important extension of the maps which
Meld rum began to compile in 1854 for the whole Indian
Ocean, and which it is understood he still keeps up.

The meteorological office of the Argentine Confederation
having been organized by Dr. B. A. Gould, he has continued
to maintain a general superintendence of its work; and from
his report of its activity during the year 1874, it appears
that seventeen stations are occupied by him ; his general
rule will be, as he states, excellence in a few researches, rather
than a wider range of inquiry with a probable sacrifice of
accuracy.

The Russian government, following the lead of France and
Germany, has decided to establish at Pavlosk, near St. Pe-
tersburg, a new physical observatory, in connection with the
central physical observatory in that city. In Japan, the de-
partment having in charge the island of Jesso has taken steps
to have regular meteorological observations made therein.
These Will be in charge of Professor Rockwell, of Tokio.

The organization of French meteorological departments
continues to progress. The southern Mediterranean region
has for its central office Montpellier. The northern Medi-
terranean region is centralized at Marseilles. For the west-
ern and southwestern regions a special meteorological con-
gress has been called, to be held at Poitiers.

The report of the proceedings at London of the Confer-
ence on Maritime Meteorology, in that it gives succinctly the
recommendations of the Vienna Congress, is well worthy of
reference to the attention of American navigators and ob-
servers.

An excellent manual of instructions for the use of observ-
ers, accompanied, of course, with convenient tables, has been
published by the London Meteorological Office. In some re-
spects its directions differ from those recommended by the
Meteorological Congress at Vienna ; and, in fact, we seem to
be as far as ever from realizing that absolute uniformity of
methods and instruments which would be so conducive to
the progress of science.

Dr. Mills communicates to the Physical Society of London
some suggestions on thermometry. For thermometers which
have not been used, the zero-point error must always be de-
termined immediately after experiment. It is also generally

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. xxxvii

necessary to correct for the projection of the stem of the
thermometer beyond the bath in which the bulb is immersed.
The author, having made nearly two thousand observations
for each of the instruments used by him, concludes that the
w T ell-known expression given by Regnault does not agree
with his experiments; he shows the exact nature of the
errors of his own instruments, but concludes that every ob-
server must make a similar investigation of his own ther-
mometers.

Among: the numerous new methods of mechanical resristra-
tion of atmospheric phenomena, especial attention seems to
have been secured for the meteorographs of Baumhauer,
Rysselbergh, and Secchi.

An excellent self-recording mercurial barometer is de-
scribed by Redier; and a mega-barometer, or one that meas-
ures the pressure of the air at any moment on an enlarged
scale, has been constructed by Hirn.

Among self-recording thermometers, the most peculiar is
that of Mr. Cripps, which is so constructed that the move-
ments of the mercury in the tube of the thermometer disturb
the position of equilibrium of the whole instrument, inasmuch
as it is delicately poised on two pivots. The consequent
movement, which is due essentially to the force of gravity,
is made serviceable for the purpose of registration.

Constitution of the Atmosphere. Williams has made a pho-
tometric investigation into the intensity of twilight when the
sun is at various distances below the horizon. He finds that
at one minute after the sun sets the intensity of the radiation
is T ^j- ; at ten minutes after sunset it is fW Both this and
the following investigation give us a means of expressing rel-
atively the amount of moisture in the air.

Crosby, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, has
made some photometric determinations of the light of the
sky at different distances from the sun. The results, repre-
sented graphically, show a logarithmic curve when the in-
tensities are plotted as ordinates, and the natural sines of
the sun's angular distance as abcissag.

The application of the spectroscope to the determination
of the quantity of moisture in the atmosphere has been si-
multaneously studied independently by De Sains, in France,
and Tait and Smythe, of Edinburgh. The latter agree that

xxxviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

certain fine telluric lines in the solar spectrum "become dark
smoky bands when the quantity of moisture is abnormally
great.

Scheme has given some careful measurements showing the
presence in minute quantities of the hyperoxide of hydrogen
in the atmosphere ; and Dr. Ecke has published an extensive
investigation into the relative quantities of oxygen in the air,
and in the different climates and at different seasons. His
studies have special reference to the sanitary advantages of
certain localities.

Temperature of the Air. Dove contributes to the Berlin
Academy a valuable paper on the climatology of Germany,
based on observations of temperature made during twenty-
five years, from 1848 to 1872, at two hundred and six stations.

Celoria elucidates the general laws of variations of temper-
ature, both annually and daily, by one hundred and ten years
of observations at Milan.

From the examination of forty years of observations of the
temperature at Brussels, Quetelet finds that the so-called
cold days of May actually exist for that place, giving rise
to a well-marked depression, amounting on the average of
the whole period to three degrees of temperature.

Silbermann has observed the temperature of a small mass
of black powder exposed to the sun's rays, and has applied
his results to explain the cases in which the northern sides
of mountain chains are more fertile than the eastern sides.

In reference to the production of frost, Ley states that a
study of the upper currents of the clouds has shown him that,
at least in England, frosts are preceded by a slight backing
of the upper southwest and northwest currents.

Barometric Pressure. The relations between the baromet-
ric pressure and the velocity of the wind have formed the
subject of valuable contributions to the Journal of the Aus-
trian Meteorological Association, where Hann has developed
the mechanical formula of Ferrel, and given a translation of
the work of Colding, of Copenhagen ; the latter shows the
perfect agreement of his formula with observations made
during certain hurricanes in 1837 and 1871. Mr. Fen-el's
formula) are, however, preferable to Colding's.

A very complete review of the state of our knowledge with
respect to the connection between barometric pressure and

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. xxxix

rainfall has been published by Hann, who has shown that
we have no reason to believe that the condensation of atmos-
pheric vapor directly causes large observable changes of
pressure. In order, then, to understand why so great de-
pressions of the barometer are observed in the midst of ev-
ery storm, he finds it necessary to adopt the mechanical prin-
ciples which have been developed so fully by Ferrel and oth-
ers, and which have been adopted by some of the American
meteorologists for many years.

In the application of the barometer to hypsometric pur-
poses, we notice the empirical tables prepared by Professor
Whitney and Mr. Pettee especially for the climate of Cali-
fornia, which give corrections to be applied to the results of
computation by the ordinary formulae, in order to obtain
more correct altitudes.

Winds. The report of the permanent committee appoint-
ed at the Meteorological Congress at Vienna has recently
been received, in which is given the proceedings of the meet-
ings held by the committee, and in the appendix the papers
communicated to it by the meteorologists of Europe. Among
these, the greatest interest will attach to the short prelimi-
nary reports by Buys Ballot, of Holland, Wild, of Russia,
and Scott, of England, on the relation between the velocity
and the force of the wind. An investigation of the same
subject has also just been published by Hagen, of Berlin ;
and from his own, as well as the other papers referred to, it
seems certain that the friction of the air blowing past the edge
of a plain circular disk brings about an increase in the press-
ure experienced by that disk. So that the pressure is not,
as ordinarily assumed, proportional to the area of the disk
and the square of the velocity of the wind, but may be said
to depend upon the circumference of the disk, and upon oth-
er powers of the velocity. A fuller investigation of this sub-
ject will be necessary before we can at all understand the
effects produced by the power of the winds of tornadoes and
hurricanes. The complete memoir by Dohrandt and Wild,
of St. Petersburg, will be found in Wild's " Repertorium."

An important memoir by Blandford has been published
under the title of the " Winds of Northern India," which,
however, contains much more than the title would seem to
indicate.

xl GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

The relative direction of the movement of the upper and
lower strata of the atmosphere has been carefully studied in
Northern Europe by Hildebrandsson, who concludes that the
higher currents of air are always directed toward points to
the right hand of the lower currents, an expression which is
much more general than that adopted by Hildebrandsson
himself, but which will be found to be fully warranted if we
compare the works of Redfield (1837), Ferrel (1859), Abbe
(1871), and Ley (1872).

Storms. Mr. W. C. Ley, well known by his valuable work
on the barometer and the winds, states that, having worked
for a considerable time at a comparison of the weather charts
of the United States and Europe, he is convinced that only
a small portion of the storms experienced on the American
side of the Atlantic can subsequently be distinctly traced in
Europe ; and of these the majority are felt severely, not in
Great Britain or France or Denmark, but in the extreme
north of Europe. Many of the most destructive European
storms occurred when the barometric pressure on the eastern
coast of America was tolerably high and steady. They ap-
peared to be developed on the Atlantic Ocean near the east-
ern limit of the area of high pressure. He does not believe
in the utility to Europe of a system of storm predictions sent
from North America, though it does not appear but what
others may be in possession of the knowledge which Mr. Ley
has not, and which would make such predictions invaluable
to France and England.

The storms of the United States have continued to be es-
pecially studied by Professor Loomis, of Yale College, who
lias based his studies, as heretofore, on the daily maps of the
Army Signal-office. He finds that centres of low baromet-
ric pressure tend to move toward centres of high pressure
when the latter lie to the southward, but move from them
when they lie to the northeastward. He concludes that about
one tenth of our storms reach the European coasts.

In reference to the display of storm signals, we note that
these are now shown from every important point along the
whole German coast. The French system of storm warnings
has experienced a new organization, dating from the 1st of
March. The British system reports a percentage of eighty-
four per cent, of verified storm warnings.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. x li

One of the most important publications of the year is the
"Bulletin of International Simultaneous Meteorological Ob-
servations," published by the Army Signal-office Weather
Bureau. This bulletin gives in detail the observations made
at 7.35 Washington time simultaneously throughout the
world. When entered upon a weather chart, we shall now
have the means at hand for a comprehensive study of the
movements of the atmosphere throughout the globe, we shall
doubtless frequently be able to trace storms in their progress
from America to England, and shall study the dynamics of
the atmosphere on the proper scale.

The study of the atmosphere by means of balloon voyages
has been diligently prosecuted. The only disastrous scien-
tific voyage has been that of the Zenith, whose ascent on the
15th of April last was signaled by the death by asphyxia of
two of the aeronauts Croce Spinelli and Sivel. Notwith-
standing this misfortune, De Fonville has resolutely carried
out several experiments looking to the solution of any mys-
tery that might have attended the death of those aeronauts;
and he shows conclusively that they must have died of suffo-
cation due to the rapid flow of gas from the ascending bal-
loon. De Fonville maintains that balloon ascents may be
made, if conducted gradually, to immense altitudes, even
greater than those reached by Glaisher.

A very important branch of the insurance business is, in
Europe, confined to the issuance of policies against damages
by hail-storms. From a recent publication by the Wurtem-
berg Bureau of Statistics, it appears that during the forty-
six years ending in 1873, thirty-five per cent, of the hail-
storms have occurred in July, and twenty-eight per cent, in
June, and less than one half per cent, in February and April ;
the earliest occurring on February 9, and the latest on Sep-
tember 25. Ten different years are enumerated in which
damage to the extent of two million florins was reported by
the insurance companies, while five years occurred in which
the damages were less than five hundred thousand florins.
The districts most frequently visited were the outlyin'g spurs
of the Alps. A comparison of the whole series shows that in
Carinthia and in Wurtemberg a certain agreement exists as
to the variable frequency of hail-storms in separate years,
pointing to some common cause other than local influences.

xlii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

In connection with this subject, we note the announcement
recently received by us of the death, on the 18th of March,
of J. Prettncr, who, although director of an extensive manu-
factory of white-lead, found time to carry out most excellent
climatological investigations in reference to his own country,
and whose work on Carinthia has been quoted in the preced-
ing sentences.

The vexed question of the influence of forests upon rain-
fall has been the subject of study of Fautrat and Sartiaux,
whose observations have been made especially in the forest
of Hachette, France. Their instruments were placed above
the tops of the trees in the midst of the forest, which covers
twelve thousand acres, and also at a similar elevation above
the surface of adjoining portions of cleared land. The total
rainfall over the forest was always larger than that over the
cleared land ; whence they concluded it to be demonstrated
that forests form a vast apparatus for the condensation of
moisture, and that there is more rain upon them than upon
open land. We fear, however, that this conclusion will not
bear the test of a very slight criticism, notwithstanding the
value that must attach to the observations themselves.

Rev. C. Dade has examined the record for forty-one years
of the weather in Canada with reference to the truthfulness
of the popular saying, " Saturday's moon, the winds full ; nev-
er was fair, and never will." He finds that the number of
days of clear weather during the twenty days after a Satur-
day's full moon is quite the same as the number of days of
clear weather for twenty days after a Saturday's new moon.
The popular saying is therefore completely contradicted by
actual observations ; and further investigations into the con-
nection between the phases ofthe-moon and the weather will
only confirm that conclusion which has so frequently been
drawn by previous investigators that there is no perceptible
connection between the moon and the weather.

PHYSICS.

The progress in Physics during the year has been marked.
In General Physics, Clerk-Maxwell's lecture before the Lon-
don Chemical Society upon the dynamical evidence of the
molecular constitution of matter is to be noted, since it pre-
sents in an admirable way the conclusions which have been

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875 xliii

reached on this subject by mathematicians who have studied
molecular physics.

Topler has given an extended illustrated description of
the admirable new physical laboratory which has just been
erected by the Austrian government at the University at
Griitz.

In Mechanics, Professor Sylvester states that by the study
of linkages he has been led to the conception of a new instru-
ment, by means of which a figure in the act of being magni-
fied or reduced may at the same time be slewed around the
centre of similitude. This instrument may be used, there-
fore, to transfer a figure from one position on a sheet of
drawing-paper to any other position upon it, leaving its form
and magnitude unaltered, but its position slewed around
through any desired angle. Again, it enables us to apply
the principle of angular repetition, to produce designs of com-
plicated and captivating symmetry from any simple pattern
or form, such as a flower or sprig ; and still it may safely, by
practice, be found to place a new and powerful implement in
the hands of the engine turner, pattern designer, and the
architectural decorator.

Rood has described in full the important modifications he
has made in Zollner's horizontal pendulum, and has given the
extraordinarilv delicate measurements he has made with it.
The mean probable error of the average result of four sets of
observations made with the apparatus is one tenth of a scale-
division, corresponding to one thirty-six millionth of an En-
glish inch ! Rood purposes to use this remarkable instru-
ment for the purpose of studying minute changes, otherwise
inappreciable, in the dimensions of solid bodies under various
conditions.

Pfaff has made some experiments upon the plasticity of ice,
in order to throw additional light upon glacier motion. In
none of the hitherto recorded observations is any mention
made of the amount of pressure necessary to change the form
of ice, though Moseley observed that to pull apart an ice cyl-
inder a weight of five and a half to nine atmospheres was
required to the square inch, and to fracture it a pressure of
seven and a half to nine atmospheres. Pfaff" has sought to
determine the minimum pressure at which ice yields, and has
proved that even the slightest pressure is sufficient if it act

xliv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

continuously, and if the temperature of the ice and of its sur-
roundings be near the melting point. In one experiment a
hollow iron cylinder 11.5 millimeters in diameter sunk into
the ice 3 millimeters in two hours, it being surrounded with
snow, the temperature varying from 1 to -f 0.5. When
the temperature rose above the melting point, it sank 3 cen-
timeters in one hour ! scarcely a trace of water resulting. A
steel rod a square centimeter in section, when pressed with
one third of an atmosphere, sank into the ice 14 millimeters
in three hours, the temperature being 2.5. The flexibility
of ice was shown by placing a parallelopiped 52 centimeters
long, 2.5 centimeters broad, and 1.3 centimeters thick upon
wooden supports placed near its ends. From February 8 to
15, the temperature varying from 12 to 3.5, the mid-
dle portion sank only 11.5 millimeters. But the succeeding
twenty-four hours the temperature was higher, and the mid-
dle of the bar sank 9 millimeters. From 8 A.M. to 2 P.M.
the increase was 3 millimeters, when the bar broke, the tem-
perature being +3. The whole bending was 23.5 millime-
ters. Similar experiments were made upon the ductility of
ice ; it elongated by traction. From these results it is easily
seen why a glacier's motion increases with the temperature.

Professor Nipher has made an elaborate investigation upon
the mechanical work done by a muscle before exhaustion,
the data given being more accurately determined than those
published by him three or four years ago, and adopted as a
basis for calculation by Professor Haughton, of Dublin.

De la Bastie has communicated to the Societe d'Encourao-e-
ment an account of his new process of tempering or harden-
ing glass. The manufactured articles are heated to near the
temperature of softening, and then cooled suddenly in a suit-
able bath of oil. The glass thus treated becomes extraordi-
narily resistant, in some cases amounting to fifty times that
of ordinary glass. It becomes also very hard, so that diffi-
culty is experienced in cutting it with a diamond. Though
so resistant, it is very brittle. A piece when broken flies into
a thousand fragments, exactly like the well-known Prince
Rupert's drop. Vessels were shown of the new glass in
which water could be boiled over a naked fire without fear
of breaking them. Upon plates of it a weight of one hun-
dred grammes was allowed to fall from a height of three

INDUSTKIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. x lv

and a half meters without fracture. Watch-glasses made
of it remained intact when thrown across the room. The
hardening process is not difficult nor costly, and it prom-
ises to become of great practical importance. Mr. Pock-
in o-ton states that he has examined by polarized light some
specimens of this hardened glass, prepared by himself ac-
cording to De la Bastie's method. Having prepared a small
cube in this manner, its sides w r ere ground plane and pol-
ished, and on examination by the polariscope it became
at once evident that the contraction of the exterior of the
mass must exert a powerful compressing force upon the in-
terior. The outer surface of the glass can be made, accord-
ing to his experiments, nearly twice as hard as ordinary
glass. On grinding away either surface it is evident that
the interior of the mass consists of ordinary glass, being lit-
tle, if at all, harder than before the application of De la Bas-
tie's process, and subject to fracture in the ordinary way.
There appears to be a limit beyond which the opposite sur-
faces can not be unequally removed without producing such
phenomena as, under the polariscope, show the existence of
unsymmetrical tensions ; but there is practically no limit be-
yond which both surfaces may not be simultaneously re-
moved, as is shown by dissolving away the softer portions
by means of hydrofluoric acid. De Luynes and Feil the
former well known from his researches on the Prince Ru-
pert's drop have also made some experiments on the hard-
ened glass of M. De la Bastie. They find that this glass
presents many points of analogy with the Prince Rupert's
drop, as well in the mode of production as of fracture.
Though it is not ordinarily possible to cut a piece of this
glass with a saw, a drill, or a file without its flying in pieces,
yet in some cases it may be done. A disk, for example, may
be drilled through its centre without fracture, though not
elsewhere. A square plate of St. Gobain glass thus hard-
ened showed in polarized light a black cross, the lines of
which were parallel to the sides. It is always possible to
saw such a plate along these lines without fracture, though
beyond them, either parallel or transverse to them, any at-
tempt to cut the plate fractures it. If the two fragments of
a plate thus cut be examined in polarized light, the arrange-
ment of the dark bands and colored fringes shows the molec-

xlvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

olar state to liavc altered by the division. Placing the one
plate directly upon the other in the original position, both
bands and fringes disappear ; while if reversed and super-
posed, the effect is increased, being that due to a plate of
double thickness; hence the tension in the plate is symmet-
rical with reference to the saw -cut. We may conclude,
therefore, that while hardened glass is in a state of tension,
it may always be cut in certain directions when the result-
ing pieces can take a condition of stable equilibrium. This
is easily determined by examination with polarized light.
In the case of fracture the fragments are always symmetrical-
ly arranged with relation to the point where the equilibrium
was first destroyed. The authors have also examined into
the cause of the bubbles so generally seen in hardened glass.
They find them to be produced at the moment of hardening,
and to disappear, or nearly so, when the glass is annealed.
They hence conclude that they are due to the imprisoning of
minute masses of gas in the glass, these masses becoming
enormously dilated when the glass is hardened; this dilata-
tion, which is actually seventeen or eighteen hundred times
the original volume, being caused by the contraction of the
surrounding glass produced in the process of hardening.

Boudreaux has published a simple and more general meth-
od of demonstrating the Archimedean law of buoyancy in
liquids. A glass vessel with a slightly conical lateral spout
is placed beneath the pan of a hydrostatic balance, to which
is suspended the body to be experimented upon. This ves-
sel is filled previously, the excess of liquid being allowed to
flow off through the spout. Two thin capsules are then pro-
vided ; one of them is placed on the pan supporting the
body, and is balanced by shot. The body is then immersed,
the overflow of liquid being collected in the second capsule.
The inclination of the balance beam shows the upward press-
ure. But on replacing the first capsule by the second, which
contains the liquid displaced, the equilibrium is restored.

Carl has devised a simple apparatus for showing lateral
pressure in liquids. It consists of a cylinder to hold the liq-
uid, hung at its top upon a knife edge, and having a lateral
opening near the bottom which can be closed at pleasure.
An index attached at the top moves over a graduated scale
as the cylinder varies from perpendicularity. The condition

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. xlvii

of equilibrium is regulated by one superior and two lateral
balls. If now the cylinder be filled with water, it remains
perpendicular; but on opening the orifice at the bottom the
water pressure is relieved on that side, and the cylinder
swings in the opposite direction. The apparatus may be
made to show also the change in the form of the parabola as
the height of the water column decreases.

Paquet has described a new densimeter, w T hich is simply
the instrument of Rousseau modified so that it can be used
for solids. An ordinary hydrometer has an enlargement
upon the top of the stem about half a square centimeter in
section and fifteen centimeters long, closed at the lower end,
and divided into cubic centimeters and tenths. A zero point
is marked at the level of the second centimeter mark, and
the instrument is so weighted that when the upper tube is
filled with water to the zero level, it sinks in water to the
bottom of the stem. To the water in the upper tube a def-
inite weight, the maximum ever to be needed, is added say,
six grammes. The instrument sinks to a certain point, which
is noted on the stem and marked 60, and the stem is divid-
ed between this mark and zero into sixty equal parts, the di-
visions being continued up if there is space. Each division
corresponds to one decigramme. To use the instrument, two
cubic centimeters of water are placed in the upper tube, and
the whole immersed in water, sinking to zero. The fragment
of mineral, for example, to be determined is placed in the
water in the upper tube, and thereby raises its level three
divisions ; the volume of the fragment is therefore 3 c. c.
The instrument sinks by the increased weight, say, to the
fifty-fifth division ; hence its weight is 55 decigrammes or 5.5
grammes. The specific gravity is 5.5-7-3, or 1.83, therefore.

Arzberger and Zulkowski have proposed a new form of
water air-pump, founded on the principle of the increased flow
of liquids caused by an ajutage like an inverted fru strum of
a cone. By a lateral opening, water, under considerable
pressure, enters a small cylindrical box, upon the top of
which is the air tube, entering about half-way, and narrow-
ing to a point. This enters and opens into the narrow end
of a slightly conical tube called the diffuser, which projects
several inches below the box, and by which the water issues.
The supply of water must keep the tube full, and as it wid-

xlviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

ens downward there is an exhaustion. With 585 mm. of
mercury pressure of water, the barometer standing at 735
mm., the vacuum produced was 724 mm., and the consump-
tion of water three liters per second. No fall of water is
necessary, the pressure being all-sufficient.

Lippmann has published in cxtenso his important memoir
on the relations between electric and capillary phenomena.
In it he establishes the following important laws : First, the
capillary constant at the surface of separation of mercury
and dilute sulphuric acid is a function of the electric differ-
ence winch exists at this surface ; and, second, when by me-
chanical means a liquid surface is made to change its form,
the electric difference of this surface varies in such a way
that the superficial tension developed in virtue of the first
law opposes the continuance of the movement. These laws
he has ingeniously applied, first, to the accurate measurement
of capillary constants, hitherto so uncertain ; and, second, to
the measurement of electro-motive force by means of his cap-
illary electrometer. His ingenious electro-caj^illary motor,
which shows the direct conversion of electrical into mechan-
ical energy by means of capillarity, is also fully described.

Terquem has published an historical note, in which he calls
attention to the fact that the generally received notion that
Faraday was the first to liquefy the gases is incorrect, since
Guyton de Morveau in 1799 liquefied ammonia gas in a bath
of calcium chloride and snow.

Exner has made some quantitative experiments on the
penetration of liquid films by gases. He finds that the ve-
locities of diffusion are directly proportional to the coeffi-
cient of absorption of the gas for the liquid composing the
film, and inversely proportional to the square root of the
density of the given gas. Adopting air as the unit of com-
parison, the relative velocities are for nitrogen, 0.06 ; oxy-
gen, 1.95 ; coal gas, 2.27 ; hydrogen, 3.77 ; carbonous oxide,
47.1; hydrogen sulphide, 105; ammonia, 46,000. As to the
absolute velocity, Exner finds that 1.88 c. c. of hydrogen and
0.55 c. c. of air diffuse simultaneously through each square
centimeter of the soapy film.

G. von Liebig has contrived an exceedingly useful modifi-
cation of Frankland's apparatus for gas analysis, in which
the measurements arc made, not by measuring the volume

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. xlix

under equal pressures, as is common, but by measuring the
pressures, the volumes being made equal. It is simple in
construction, satisfactory in operation, and accurate in its re-
sults.

ACOUSTICS.

In Acoustics, Lissajous has described in the Bulletin de la
Societe d' * Encouragement an elaborate machine for tracing
mechanically the curves which represent the composition of
vibratory movements, constructed by Froment. The driv-
ing-shaft carries toothed wheels, gradually increasing in size
from right to left. Upon the pinions driven by these, which
are arranged in pairs, are eccentrics, which by means of con-
necting rods o-ive a differential to and fro motion to an arm
transverse to their direction. To the centres of two contigu-
ous arms two other connecting rods are attached, which move
a transverse arm of the second order, and similarly an arm
of the third order is thus moved, which carries the style.
The motion of the style is therefore the algebraic sum and
resultant of the motion of the eight driving-wheels, and the
curves it describes may be exceedingly complicated.

Schuller has contrived an apparatus by which Lissajous's
figures may be readily produced on the screen. It consists
of two pendulums, adjustable by sliding weights, carrying
mirrors, each movable on a horizontal axis, at their upper
ends. The planes of vibration may be parallel or perpendic-
ular, at will. The same physicist has devised a modification
of the common form of this experiment with tuning-forks.
Instead of having a mirror on the extremity of a prong of
each fork, he places the two forks with their four prongs in
the same plane, one of the forks being vertical, and four or
five inches in advance of the other, which is horizontal. The
lower prong of the horizontal fork carries a screen with a
small hole in it. The second fork carries on one of its prongs
a small lens of short focus. The small opening in the screen
is strongly illuminated by sunlight concentrated on it by a
lens ; an image of this is formed on a distant screen by means
of the lens on the second fork. When the first fork is vibrat-
ing, a vertical line of light will appear; when the second is
in motion, the line will be horizontal ; when both are in ac-
tion, the Lissajous curve corresponding to their rate will be
2;iven. The figures are much larger made in this way.

L GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

Deeharme has given a novel method of producing sono-
rous vibrations, lie simply blows a current of air through
a tube, the lower end of which is just even with the surface
of mercury contained in a suitable vessel. This yields a dis-
tinct sound, and at the same time the mercury is thrown
into circular waves, producing a symmetrical network on its
surface. The smaller the interior diameter of the tube, the
more acute and feeble the sound and the finer the waves.
He recommends, as the best, tubes between 0.8 and 5.0 milli-
meters in interior diameter, fixed vertically, and supplied by
a uniform current of air. By having a series of properly se-
lected tubes, the surface of the mercury may be made to as-
sume any sets of waves and interferences; and by illuminat-
ing them strongly, they may be projected on a screen as an
admirable lecture experiment. The same author has de-
scribed a new form of sonorous flame. When gas under the
ordinary pressure is burned from an opening three to five
millimeters in diameter, a flame thirty to fifty centimeters in
height is obtained. If now, by means of a similar tube held
horizontally, a moderate current of air be directed against
the flame, persistent and very varied sounds are produced.
The experiment succeeds very well with a Bunsen burner
giving a luminous flame (its air-openings being closed), the
tube supplying the air being placed horizontally a little
above the orifice and in contact with the flame. The phe-
nomenon acquires special interest when viewed in a revolv-
ing mirror. In a subsequent paper he gives experimental
reasons for believing that the air which is blown against the
flame, and which lie supposed to act solely mechanically,
plays also a chemical part. He finds that, using a Bunsen
burner, the sound is extremely feeble unless the air-openings
be closed and the flame be luminous. Moreover, neither car-
bon dioxide nor nitrogen gases will produce the sound unless
oxygen be mixed with it. The author hence believes that
the sound results from the small explosions which are inces-
santly produced by the combination of the oxygen of the air
with the carbon and hydrogen of the flame when the com-
bustion of this is already incomplete. That the sound should
be well-pronounced, therefore, the presence of air or of oxy-
gen mixed with some inert gas is necessary.

Bresina has described a simple method of comparing the

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. \\

rates of vibration of two sounding air columns by means of
oscillating flames. To the jets supplying two ordinary sing-
ing tubes are aflixed lateral branches, by which the gas from
each may also be supplied to a second burner supported on
a convenient lateral stand. When the flames in the tubes
sing, those outside vibrate in unison with them ; and by
means of a revolving mirror the ratio of the two may easily
be ascertained by counting. If the two singing flames are
connected to the same exterior flame, the combined vibration
is seen in the mirror.

Tyndall, in a communication to the Royal Society on acous-
tic reversibility, discusses the curious results obtained at
Villejuif and Montlhery in 1822, when cannonading at the
latter station was heard at the former, but not the reverse,
and concludes that Montlhery must have been surrounded
by a highly diacoustic atmosphere, while Villejuif was in an
atmosphere acoustically opaque. He supports this position
by ingenious experimental evidence.

Mercadier has printed a paper upon the law of the influ-
ence of the variation of the dimensions of a tuning-fork upon
its vibrations, in which he shows that the number of vibra-
tions is independent of the breadth, is directly proportional
to the thickness, and is inversely proportional to the square
of the length. From these laws it becomes possible to cal-
culate within one or two per cent, the dimensions of a fork
necessary to give any required number of vibrations.

Neyreneuf has shown very beautifully the oscillatory or
vibratory character of the detonation of a mixture of oxygen
and hydrogen gases. In a tube the result may be shown in
two ways : either by making the tube perfectly dry inside,
in which case the watery vapor produced by the combustion
condenses preferably on the cooler parts of the tube, leaving
those parts transparent which the vibrating flame has heated,
or by coating the tube interiorly with a thin layer of par-
affin, when the melting of this substance shows the heated
portions. In these experiments it is necessary to graduate
the rapidity of the combustion to the size of the tube. With
a test-tube an inch and a quarter in diameter and eight inch-
es long, well dried, and filled with a mixture of equal vol-
umes of hydrogen and air, the stria? represented fern leaves.
With tubes of less diameter, the effects are more regular, es-

lii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

pecially if during the detonation there is a musical sound
produced. Fine striae are then observed perpendicular to
the axis of the tube. If the tube is very long, there is no
musical sound produced, but the rings are widely separated
and very sharp.

La Cour has devised a very ingenious use of the tuning-
fork for transmitting signals on telegraph lines, which prom-
ises to become of great importance. It is based on the well-
known fact that if a given fork be made to interrupt an elec-
tric circuit by its vibrations, and the intermittent current
thus produced be passed through a series of electro-magnets,
each in connection with a fork of different rate, only that
fork will be thrown into vibration which is in unison with
the first one. Practically the time required to do this is a
small fraction of a second. The advantages of this method
are numerous. Not only may many receiving instruments
at one station be operated, each by its own key, through a
single wire, but many different stations in the same circuit
may be operated, that one alone receiving the message which
has the requisite instrument. Moreover, many signals may
in this way be transmitted over the same wire at the same
time, and many dispatches sent simultaneously to as many
stations. All this may be done, too, without affecting the
line for its ordinary use, and independent of atmospheric
and terrestrial currents. The system recently patented by
Elisha Gray, of Chicago, is essentially similar in principle.

Mayer has published a redetermination of the durations of
the residual sonorous sensations, in which he was assisted by
Madame Emma Seiler and her son, Dr. Carl Seiler, of Phila-
delphia, well known in connection with similar researches of
Ilelmholtz. It now appears that JJt l has a persistence of -^
of a second, Ut 2 ^, Ut 3 T \>, Sol 3 t-J^, Ut 4 y^, Mi 4 j^-, Sol 4
-pjr, and Ut 5 T ~jy of a second. The determination is not an
easy one, owing to the production of secondary and result-
ant tones.

Pole has made an experimental determination of the
change in the pitch of a note which takes place when the
sounding body is moving a repetition of the experiment. of
Buys Ballot. He used for the purpose locomotive whistles,
and concludes that the most common interval by which the
tone is lowered when two trains pass each other is a third,

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. Jin

either major or minor, corresponding to a speed for each of
between thirty-five and forty miles an hour.

HEAT.

On the subject of Heat, Cailletet has further studied the ef-
fect of pressure on combustion, the experiments being made
up to three hundred atmospheres. He finds that while the
luminosity of a flame increases under pressure, the activity
of the combustion actually diminishes ; the temperature aug-
ments, but the oxidation lessens. An alcohol flame, ordina-
rily so pale, becomes as bright as that of a candle at twenty
atmospheres. A candle flame under these conditions gives
more light, but the wick soon becomes smoky from imperfect
combustion that which is gained on the one side being lost
on the other.

Violle has called attention to the thermo-diffusion experi-
ments of Feddersen and Dufour (which are properly such,
since the diffusion of a gas through a porous diaphragm
causes a rise of temperature on the side of the entering gas,
and a difference of temperature on the two sides of such a
diaphragm causes a diffusion of gas), in order to explain an
experiment of Dufour, in which he used air in different hy-
grometric states on the two sides of the diaphragm, and ob-
served the diffusion. Violle believes that the true explana-
tion of this result is to be found in Merget's experiments, in
which a porous cell, filled with pumice in fragments, and
closed by a cork through which a tube passes, the whole be-
ing well moistened, develops, when exteriorly heated to a
dull red heat, simply from the surface evaporation, a pressure
of air in its interior of three atmospheres. Experiments of
his own show how extremely sensitive is this apparatus to
changes of temperature. The practical importance of these
fricts is very great. Our clothes, the stones of our houses,
the very soil itself, w r hen heated after previous moistening,
act exactly like the apparatus of Merget, with an activity
truly surprising. In animals this gaseous movement plays
its part in respiration ; but in plants, especially in aquatic
plants, it is seen in full activity, JSfelumbiwn speciosicm, for
example, throwing from its stomata half a liter of air per
minute, solely through this action going on in its leaves.

Berthelot has published an important research, in which he

liv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

lias studied the thermal changes produced when acids or al-
kalies are dissolved in water, with the expectation of solving
the question of hydratation. lie has also given a descrip-
tion in a subsequent memoir of the various pieces of appara-
tus which he has employed in his calorimetrical experiments.
These are, a helicoidal agitator for mixing the water of the
calorimeter, an ecraseur for crushing salts and other solids in
liquids, a distilling apparatus, with worm and receiver, for
effecting reactions out of contact with water, an apparatus
for measuring the heat of solution at elevated temperatures,
a closed apparatus for the reaction of nitrogen dioxide on
oxygen, and an apparatus for decomposing ammonium nitrite
by heat.

Thomsen has made another series of investigations in ther-
mo-chemistry, in which the heat of combination of manga-
nese, zinc, cadmium, and iron has been determined. Com-
bining these results with previous ones, it appears that for
the nine metals which decompose hydrochloric acid with evo-
lution of hydrogen, the heat of combination for every mole-
cule of hydrogen thus evolved is, for lithium, 125,860 calories;
for potassium, 123,700 ; for sodium, 114,380; for magnesium,
108,290; for aluminum, 79,880; for manganese, 49,360; for
zinc, 34,200; for iron, 21,310; and for cadmium, 17,610 ca-
lories.

Boisbaudran has shown that a remarkable inequality of
action is exerted by a given supersaturated solution upon
different isomorphous bodies. A perfectly regular ciwstal
of potassio-chrome alum, placed in a slightly supersaturated
solution of ammonio-alumina alum which had been rendered
basic, so as to crystallize in cubes was soon covered with a
white octohedric envelope showing cubic facets. After a
longer time the cubic facets had increased considerably, but
the distances between opposite solid angles of the octohedron
remained unaltered. Hence the author concludes that the
solution must have been supersaturated relatively to the oc-
tohedral faces of the ammonio-alumina alum, but not rela-
tively to the cubic faces of the same alum. In general it ap-
pears that in the phenomena of solution and crystallization,
the molecular volume, the density, the relative arrangement
of the similar or dissimilar atoms in the molecule, and all
other causes of dissimilarity, possess their special influences.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. l v

Indeed, it may be said that two bodies not absolutely iden-
tical never exhibit strictly the same physical or chemical
reactions, however closely they may in certain particulars
resemble each other.

Pfaundler confirms the unequal solubility of different faces
of the same crystal, remarked by Lecoq de Boisbaudran, and
calls attention to his theoretical explanation of it, first pub-
lished in 1869. He concludes that those faces of a crystal
which possess favorable conditions for resisting the impact
of the moving molecules are preserved and grow at the ex-
pense of the others. " Thus," he says, " the principle laid
down by Darwin is applicable also in the world of molecules.
Those forms and combinations which possess the most favor-
able conditions of existence are the ones which are preserved."

Boisbaudran has also shown that very low temperatures
may be produced by means of the ammonia ice-machine of
Carre by taking suitable precautions. If during the cooling
the heater be surrounded with ice-water, or, still better, with
a freezing-mixture, it is possible to obtain, even with a ma-
chine holding only half a liter, the rapid solidification of sev-
eral kilogrammes of mercury. After the freezing of nearly
five kilogrammes of this metal in a solid cylinder, the tem-
perature within was found to be 48. If ice and salt be
added to the water in which the condenser is placed during
the heating, it is not necessary to raise the temperature of
the heater so high by ten or fifteen degrees.

Guthrie has given a curious paper upon hydrates (or hy-
drated salts) formed at a low temperature, which he calls
cryohydrates. He shows, contrary to the generally received
opinion, that the minimum temperature attainable by mixing
ice with a salt is very independent of the ratio of the two,
and of their temperature, and of the state of division of the
ice. The temperature of a mixture of ice and a salt is as
constant and precise as the melting-point of ice. He ob-
serves that the cryohydrates of the nine salts which potas-
sium, sodium, and ammonium severallv form with chlorine,
bromine, and iodine, are formed at temperatures ranging from
28 to 11. Thirty-five salts were examined in this way,
and it was found that the temperature at which the cryo-
hydrate is formed is precisely that obtained by mixing the
given salt with ice. In a subsequent paper he gives addi-

hi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

tional experiments upon salt solutions and attached water,
lie assigns the name cryogen to an appliance for obtaining a
temperature below C, and cryohydrate to the substance
produced by the union of water with a body, this hydrate
being capable of existence only below C. He finds that
of cryogens the best is a mixture of sodium bromide with
three to six times its weight of ice finely divided, the tem-
perature produced being 28 C. From an extended series
of experiments, he concludes that " of similar salts, the one
which produces the greatest cold when used in a freezing
mixture unites as a cryohydrate with the fewest molecules
of water." And again, " The temperature at which the cry-
ohydrate is formed is the same as the temperature of the
corresponding freezing mixture." Of special interest is the
cryohydrate of ethyl alcohol, which is produced whenever a
dilute alcohol is exposed to a temperature of 34 C, and
has four water molecules united to one of alcohol. It sepa-
rates from the liquid in crystals. Ether also forms a cryo-
hydrate, solidifying at 2 C, and consisting of one ninth of
ether. If the experiment be made in a long test-tube, the
long candle-like mass, when removed, placed upright on a
plate, and lighted, burns with a non-luminous flame, the heat
bein<x consumed in meltinq; the ice.

Chaumont has experimentally investigated the question
of ventilation, so far, at least, as the amount of air necessary
for health is concerned. His determinations were made on
the air of barracks, of prisons, and of hospitals; and he con-
cludes from them that 85 cubic meters (3000 cubic feet) of
air per head per hour is necessary in health, in ordinary dis-
eases one third more than this, and in serious diseases and
epidemics even more still.

Gernez has made an exhaustive research into the phenom-
ena attending ebullition. His paper opens with a long his-
torical note upon this subject. Then follows his own results,
in which he studied (1) liquids heated in contact with solids,
(2) within other liquids, and (3) the ebullition developed by
mechanical action. He maintains that ebullition is an evap-
oration into some gaseous atmosphere contained within the
liquid.

Troost and Ilautefeuille have made a calorimetrical inves-
tigation on iron and manganese silicides. They conclude,

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. l v ii

first, that silicon in combining with manganese evolves con-
siderable heat, and hence that the compound thus formed is
very stable a fact already proved for carbon. Second, that
the similarity of these two substances, carbon and silicon,
appears also when their action on iron is considered ; they
both act as if they were dissolved in the metal.

Kundt and Warburg have obtained an interesting: result in
investigating the specific heat of mercury vapor. On the
kinetic molecular theory of Clausius, the quotient of the spe-
cific heat of a gas at constant pressure, divided by the specific
heat of the same gas at constant volume, should be 1.67,
while; in fact, for most gases this quotient is only 1.405.
Clausius explains this by the fact that molecules are not
material points, but are composed of atoms ; and only in a
monatomic gas would there be a correspondence with theory.
The molecule of mercury is shown by its vapor density to be
monatomic ; and it is now found by experiment that in the
case of this vapor the above quotient is actually 1.67. Hence
a molecule of mercury, so far as its theoretical and mechan-
ical properties are concerned, acts like a material point.

Desains has continued his researches upon solar radiation,
and has determined the quantity of heat received per minute
at Paris by one square centimeter of the earth's surface
placed normal to the direction of the rays during an entire
year. The maximum was on June 22, when the amount re-
ceived was 1.29 units, and the minimum on January 30, the
amount being one unit. He finds also that the proportion
of the solar rays transmitted by a layer of water eight mil-
limeters thick reached its maximum on July 4, being 0.71,
and its minimum on April 25, being 0.63.

Mayer has proposed a simple mode of obtaining thermo-
graphs of the isothermals of the solar disk by the use of
Meusel's double iodide. Thin paper, smoked on one side, is
covered on the other with the iodide, and is exposed to the
sun's image, formed by a telescopic object-glass, the aperture
being at first only that necessary to give the smallest area
of blackened iodide with a sharp contour. This he calls the
area of maximum temperature. On enlarging the aperture,
the black area gradually extends, forming a series of new
isothermal lines with the successive enlargements. Some in-
teresting conclusions have already been reached, and it is

lviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

the author's intention to make a thorough investigation of
the vast field thus opened.

Lundquist has given the results of his calculations to de-
termine the distribution of heat in the normal sun spectrum,
founded on certain measurements of Lamansky's. lie repre-
sents the intensity of this heat graphically, and gives curves
in which the ordinates represent intensities, and the abscissas
wave lengths. It appears from these curves " that in the
normal spectrum of the sun the maximum of heat is situated
about in the middle of the luminous spectrum, and diminish-
es on both sides of this point," thus confirming entirely the
experimental results obtained by Dr. John W. Draper in 1872.
In the electric spectrum, however, assuming Tyndall's results
as data, calculation gives a curve in which the maximum of
heat is near the line A. In this case the distribution of heat
is not equal in both halves of the visible spectrum.

Iloorweg has repeated with great care the experiments of
Tyndall and Magnus upon the diathermancy of moist air,
with a view to reconcile the discrepancies in their results.
The general arrangement of the apparatus was similar to that
used by Wild, a Leslie's cube being placed on either side of
a Melloni's pile furnished with its conical reflectors. But for
the introduction of the moist air between the cube and pile
on the one side and the dry air on the other, two cylinders
were used, the one filled with moistened pumice, the other
with calcium chloride. These were placed beneath the line
joining the pile with the source of heat, so that, whenever a
current of air was driven through them, moist air rose at one
end of the pile and dry at the other. With a very delicate
galvanometer no deviation could be detected. A pair of
tubes, each 25 centimeters long, open at the ends, and bored
laterally with fine holes, was then substituted, but with
scarcely an appreciable result. Both tubes were now placed
on the same side of the pile, and a slight but distinct devia-
tion was observed, amounting to 1.7 per cent. The tube was
now increased to a meter in length, a heated copper plate
being used as the source of heat. The absorption of moist
air was 2 per cent. The experiments were repeated with
various sources of heat ; the absorption by moist air varied
from 3 to 0.4 per cent. Alcohol vapor absorbed, under like
conditions, from 6 to 27 per cent, of the heat. Iloorweg con-

INDUSTEIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. \[ x

eludes with Tyndall that aqueous vapor lias an appreciable ab-
sorbing power for heat, though it is much less than Tyndall
supposed. The controversy between Tyndall and Magnus
was a very natural one, Tyndall, on the one hand, having over-
estimated this absorption through neglecting condensation,
or vapor-hesion, as Magnus called it ; and Magnus, on the
other, having denied its existence because the tube he used
was entirely too short to make it apparent with the galva-
nometer employed in his experiments.

OPTICS.

In Optics, Crookes has published some curious and delicate
experiments, in which carefully suspended disks of pith were
set in motion in vacuo, apparently by the action of light.
In a public lecture, however, given in Edinburgh, Professor
Dewar, after explaining the method adopted by Professor
Tait and himself for obtaining very perfect vacua by taking
advantage of the power that charcoal has of condensing gases,
stated that these vacua were so perfect that it was impossible
to force through them an electric spark between electrodes
one quarter of an inch apart, even when a powerful coil is em-
ployed ; and hence that such vacua were, therefore, eminent-
ly proper to repeat the investigation recently made by Mr.
Crookes upon the action of a beam of light on a disk at the
end of a delicately suspended glass fibre. Such an investi-
gation has been made by Dewar, and he finds that the move-
ments of the disk are due entirely to radiant heat, and not
to any mysterious agency, as Mr. Crookes seems to imply.
The sensitiveness of the disk increases with the perfection
of the vacuum. The sides of the glass receiver must be quite
thin. If the disks are covered with lampblack, they are af-
fected much sooner than if left white. The conductivity of
the suspended body for heat, and the nature of the residuum
gas within the vacuum, determine the density of the gas cor-
responding to the neutral point observed by Mr. Crookes. The
intensity of the movements of the disk increases in proportion
to the inverse square of the distance of the source of radiation.
If we interpose between the light and the disk a substance
opaque to heat rays, although transparent to light, the move-
ments of the disk immediately cease. If we interpose a sub-
stance transparent to heat, but opaque to light, the deflection

lx GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

of the disk is larjxc. If two disks are taken, one of rock-salt
and the other of glass, it is found that the rock-salt is inactive
when a beam of light is thrown on it, but the glass disk is
active, the reason being that the rock-salt is not heated,
whereas the s;lass is heated. To show the sensitiveness of
the apparatus, it may be stated that an ordinary lucifer-
mateh will, at a distance of four feet, produce instant action.
Professor Dewar has not accepted the suggestion of Reyn-
olds that the action is due to the evaporation of some of the
fluid on the surface of the disk. These phenomena allow of
a very perfect explanation, according to the principles of the
kinetic theory of gases and the mechanical theory of heat,
according to which the particles of gas are flying about in
all directions with a velocity which depends upon their tem-
perature ; the length of the path of each particle is depend-
ent principally upon the barometric pressure. Under ordi-
nary barometric pressure of thirty inches, the length of the
average path is about one ten-thousandth of a millimeter,
but when the barometric pressure is reduced to the one-
millionth part of an inch, the average length of the path be-
tween two collisions is about eighteen inches. If, therefore,
Mr. Crookes's disks are in such a vacuum, and heated by ra-
diation on one side warmer than on the other, the particles
of gas that impinge on that side of the disk leave it at a
higher temperature, and therefore with a greater velocity,
than those striking the opposite side. Hence there is a re-
coil of the disk as observed by him.

AVibel has made additional experiments upon the cause of
the luminosity of flames. He finds the results of Knapp con-
firmed, that nitrogen, hydrogen chloride, carbon dioxide, and
other indifferent gases, act like air to destroy the luminosity
of gas used in a Bunsen burner; but he also finds, curiously
enough, that this luminosity may be wholly or partially re-
stored by heating the tube to redness through which the
mixture passes. Hence he concludes, 1st, that the absence
of luminosity in a Bunsen flame is not due to dilution of the
gas; 2d, that it is due to the cooling effect of the inert gas,
since, if this be heated, the luminosity returns; 3d, that the
luminosity of aflame depends upon the temperature existing
in its interior; and, 4th, that ordinary illuminating materials
are such because the rising gases and vapors are sufficiently

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. lxi

heated in the exterior combustion zone to cause their de-
composition.

Gariel has described some simple apparatus for explaining
by construction the elementary laws and formulas of optics.

Cornu has communicated to the Academy a valuable pa-
per on the velocity of light, in which he gives the results of
the new measurements made between the Paris Observatory
and the tower of Montlhery, twenty-three kilometers distant,
under the direction of the council of the observatory. As a
mean of 504 experiments, he finds the velocity of light in
vacuo to be 300,400 kilometers, or 186,700 English miles,
w T ith a probable error below one thousandth in relative value.
This gives for the solar parallax, as found by the equation
of light, 8.878", and by the phenomena of aberration, 8.881".

The same author has described a new measuring instrument
for minute quantities, called a reflection lever, which consists
of a beam like a balance beam standing on four points, two
on the line where the knife edge is usually placed, the other
two at the ends of the beam, all four being accurately in one
plane. To the centre of the beam is attached transversely
a mirror, by means of which any displacement from the hor-
izontal may be detected and measured by the reflected lin-
age of a distant scale. The readings are made with a tele-
scope.

Pickering and Strange have investigated photometrically
the amount of light absorbed by the sun's atmosphere. By
means of a porte lumiere carrying a black mirror and lens,
an image of the sun 40 centimeters in diameter was thrown
on a screen 230 centimeters from the aperture. A circular
hole was cut in the screen, and behind this the photometer
disk was placed. By moving the mirror any portion of the
sun's image could be thrown on the photometer, and its
light measured. The results were thus given : The proba-
ble error does not exceed one per cent., except close to the
edge. The light at the edge is about 0.4 that at the centre.
The variations in brightness are nearly those which would
be produced by a homogeneous atmosphere whose height is
equal to the sun's radius, and its opacity such that only twen-
ty-six per cent, of the light is transmitted. There appears
to be a slightly different distribution of the light along the
polar from that along the equatorial diameter. If the sun's

Ixii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

atmosphere were removed, the brightness of the sun's disk
would be uniform, and 3.83 times that of the centre of the
disk at present. Moreover, the total amount of light would
be increased 4.G4 times.

Curtis has published a method of showing the phenomena
of extraordinary reflection. Upon a horizontal circular stage,
movable around the axis and adjustable in height, a crystal
of Iceland spar well polished is placed. A beam of light
falls on the crystal at such an angle that after refraction
and reflection within it the beam shall pass from it, making
the same angle on the other side of the normal. Five im-
ages of the opening through which the beam of light comes
will be seen, one formed by reflection at the upper surface,
and the other four by double reflection within the crystal.

Williams has made a photometric investigation into the
intensity of twilight when the sun is at various distances be-
low the horizon. The percentage of error in the instrument
employed was about three. The results of the photometer
readings were reduced to the light given by a standard
candle as unity, when burning at a distance of one meter
from the disk. By a graphical construction of the actual
results a curve was obtained, and a table deduced which
gives the percentage of light, compared with that at sunset
as unity, for any number of minutes after sunset up to 34.
At 1 minute it is 0.95; at 10 minutes, 0.290 ; at 20 minutes,
0.064 ; at 30 minutes, 0.009 ; and at 34 minutes it is 0.004.

Crosby, also, in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
has made some photometric determinations of the light of
the sky at different distances from the sun, adjusting the
mirror and lens which were employed so that the sun's im-
age would fall on the disk, and then measuring the intensity
of the light at regular intervals thereafter. In some cases
this method was reversed. The results represented graphic-
ally show a logarithmic curve, when the intensities are taken
as ordinates and the natural sines of the sun's angular dis-
tance as abscissa?. The author calls attention to the mete-
orological importance of his results.

Giraud-Teulon has discovered a new method of measuring
distances optically, and has constructed a telemeter based
upon it. A double image of the object is produced by a
division of the eye-piece, one half moving by the other by

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. lxiii

means of a micrometer screw. The apparent size of the ob-
ject is measured from two stations on the same line with
this object, and by a simple calculation, knowing the dis-
tance between these stations and the focal length of the
telescope, the distance of the object is obtained. The error
in the measurements made does not exceed five per cent.

Jacques has determined, in the laboratory of the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology, the percentage of light
transmitted through glass plates placed both perpendicu-
larly and obliquely to the ray. The plates were ordinary
window -glass carefully cleaned. The original light being
100, one plate transmitted 89.5 per cent., four plates 69.3
per cent., seven plates 55 per cent., and ten plates 45.3 per
cent. When the plates are oblique to the ray, the amount
transmitted by one plate decreases rapidly with the obliq-
uity, while with ten plates it actually increases until the ob-
liquity reaches 55.

Cornu has proposed a very simple mode of correcting tel-
escopic object-glasses for photographic rays, by separating
more or less from each other the lenses composing them, an
idea originally suggested by Sir John Herschel for restoring
overcorrected objectives. Since the focal distance for chem-
ical rays is about one-half per cent, of the principal focal dis-
tance behind that for luminous rays, the necessary correction
is effected by separating the flint and crown components by
this amount, and then carefully adjusting. Cornu has used
the method with success on an object-glass of four inches'
aperture ; the method of Rutherford is, however, to be pre-
ferred for glasses much larger than this.

Pickering and Williams have investigated the foci of lenses
placed obliquely, from which it appears that even the most
carefully corrected lenses may still be defective in this re-
spect. In a photographic camera, for lines passing through
the axis, the surface, instead of being plane, should have a
radius of curvature of only 0.3 the focus, while for lines per-
pendicular to these the curvature should be 0.7 the focus.
Curiously enough, the actual curvature in the normal eye is
about 0.5, or the mean of the above numbers.

Kriiss has described a new eye-piece formed of a divergent
flint lens, placed between two convergent lenses of crown, so
that the faces in contact have the same radius of curvature,

lxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

and consequently touch at all points. Of the four radii of
curvature present, the first is +5.27 lines, the second +10
lines, the third +2.9 lines, and the fourth 5.73 lines. The
sign plus refers to curves having the convexity toward the
eye of the observer. This eye-piece has been constructed
by Steinheil, and is sensibly aplanatic and achromatic, with
a field of about thirty degrees.

Merz has described a new telescope which he has just
completed for the observatory at Quito. It has a clear aper-
ture of 9 Paris inches, and a focal distance of 116.75 inches.
The position circle is divided directly to five minutes, and
reads with a vernier to one minute. A double-rino* microm-
eter and a filar micrometer are attached, the latter having
eight eye-pieces, magnifying respectively 105, 160, 245, 350,
455, 585, 780, and 910 diameters. The hour circle is 18 inch-
es in diameter, and the declination circle 20 inches; the for-
mer is divided to one minute, and reads to two seconds of
time ; the latter is divided to five minutes, and reads to
four seconds. A number of improvements in the mounting
are noticed.

Payet has published a paper on the conical solar dials of
the ancients, particularly that of Ileracleus of Latmos, with
a view to bring to light the amount of knowledge possessed
by their constructors. The interior surface of these dials
constituted a cone, the section of which by the upper hori-
zontal surface was a curve of the second degree, either an
ellipse (as in the dial of Ileracleus and the Naples dial), a
hyperbola (dial at Athens), or a parabola (Phoenician dial).
The latter curve requires that one of the generatrices of the
cone should be rigorously horizontal, and has been only once
observed. But the dials were not made in this way : the
cone was traced with any convenient proportions, subject
only to the condition that its summit should be on a per-
pendicular from the centre of the base.

Professor Mayer has called attention to a curious bit of
history in relation to Young's theory of colors. It appears
that Young first adopted red, yellow, and blue as the prima-
ry colors, and that subsequently, taking it for granted th.it
"Wollaston was correct when he asserted four natural divis-
ions of color in the solar spectrum, separated from each other
by dark lines, he adopted red, green, and violet, these being

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. 1 XV

the divisions noted by Wollaston. Moreover, Young seems
never to have made any experiments to test his theory until
some time after he had, on theoretical grounds, adopted it.

Bunsen has given an account of some new methods in
spectrum analysis, in which he has sought to render the use
of the spark for obtaining spectra as easy and as general as
that of the gas-flame. The first portion of his paper is de-
voted to a description of the battery coil and spark appa-
ratus required; the second gives the results of his investiga-
tions in this way, particularly with the rarer elements. The
memoir is accompanied by three spectrum plates, uncolored,
showing the spectra of thirty elements and compounds.

Watts has described a new form of micrometer for use
with the spectroscope, in which one of the lines of the spec-
trum itself is substituted for the cross wires. This line may
be the sodium line, which is almost always present in gas-
flame spectra, a hydrogen line with vacua tubes, or a Fraun-
hofer line in solar work. This standard line is displaced by
a micrometer screw, by which the amount of motion neces-
sary to move it from one point of a spectrum to another may
be ascertained. The micrometer screw is attached to the
upper half of a divided line placed between the prism and
the observing telescope, and moves this half over the lower,
which is fixed.

Lockyer and Roberts have investigated the absorption
spectra of metals volatilized by the oxyhydrogen flame.
They employed a block of lime, in which the metal to be
examined was placed, and in which it was volatilized by
the oxyhydrogen jet. Through a tube cut in the block the
beam of electric light passed, which was viewed by the spec-
troscope placed opposite. In this way the absorption pro-
duced by the metallic vapor could be observed. They con-
clude that in passing from the liquid state to that of perfect
gas the molecules pass through diflerent orders of complex-
ity, this complexity being diminished by the action of heat,
so that each molecular simplification is marked by a dis-
tinctive spectrum.

Goldstein has made some investigations upon the spectra
of rarefied gases, which seem to contradict the views of
"Wullner. But the latter physicist, in replying to the state-
ments of Goldstein, claims that his view, that a line spec-

lxvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

tram is the result of the ignition of a single line of molecules,
and that a band spectrum appears when the light comes
from a thick layer of the gas, is not only not disproved, but
is actually confirmed by the new experiments.

Lockyer has read a paper before the Royal Society upon
his new map of the solar spectrum, the portion now present-
ed being that extending from wave-lengths 39 to 41. It is
constructed on four times the scale of Angstrom's " Spectre
Normale," the number of lines being increased over this,
which contains but 39 to 518, of which 416 have been act-
ually identified, and the largest number of these, 1G3, as-
signed to cerium.

Wright has experimented to obtain the spectrum of the
gaseous matter evolved from meteorites when heated in a
vacuum. The meteorites employed were three in number
those from Texas, from Tazewell County, Tennessee, and
from Arva, Hungary. Borings from each of these were
placed in a hard glass tube connected with an efficient
Sprengel pump. By means of a T tube an ordinary Pliicker
vacuum tube was also connected with the tube to be heated.
At a red heat the Texas iron gave off 4.75 times, the Ten-
nessee iron 4.69 times, and the Hungary iron more than 44
times its volume of gases, which the spectroscope showed to
consist of hydrogen, carbonous and carbonic oxides.

The same physicist has published a preliminary note on
the spectroscopic examination of gases from a stony meteor-
ite which fell in Iowa on February 12. The small grains of
iron which it contained yielded several times their volume
of gas, even on raising the temperature but slightly. Of this
gas the two oxides of carbon constituted forty-nine per cent,
(carbonic acid thirty-five, and carbonic oxide fourteen), the
remaining fifty-one per cent, being hydrogen. The spectrum
exhibited, the gas being under only a few millimeters' press-
ure, was that of carbon, especially the three brightest bands
in the green and blue. This fact is especially significant
when we remember that these are precisely the bands ob-
served in cometary spectra, the close connection of meteors
and comets beino; well established.

In a later paper upon the gaseous constituents of this
meteorite, he formulates the following conclusions: 1. The
stony meteorites are distinguished from the iron ones by

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. lxvil

having the oxides of carbon, chiefly the dioxide, as their
characteristic gases, instead of hydrogen. 2. The propor-
tion of carbon dioxide given off is much greater at low than
at high temperatures, and is sufficient to mask the hydrogen
in the spectrum. 3. The amount of the gases contained, in a
larire meteorite, or a cluster of such bodies serving: as a com-
etary nucleus, is sufficient to form the train as ordinarily ob-
served. 4. The spectrum of the gases is closely identical
with that of several of the comets.

Montigny has discovered, by means of an ingenious appa-
ratus which he calls a scintillometer, a connection between
the variations of color of scintillating stars and their spectra.
In every case those stars which scintillate or twinkle least
are those whose spectra show numerous well-pronounced
lines, sometimes united in zones.

Capron has examined with a spectroscope especially con-
structed for the purpose the spectrum of the aurora, and has
compared it with that of hydrogen, oxygen, oxides of carbon,
coal gas, air, hydrogen phosphide, iron, and mercury under
various conditions. He differs from Angstrom in his conclu-
sions, first, as to the presence of moisture in the auroral re-
gions, and, second, as to the importance of the violet pole
spectrum in air.

Huggins has sent to the Royal Society a note on the spec-
trum of Coggia's comet, which presented in the spectroscope
three distinct spectra : (l) a continuous spectrum coming
from the light of the nucleus; (2) a spectrum consisting of
bright bands ; and (3) a continuous spectrum accompanying
the gaseous spectrum on the coma, and representing almost
entirely the light of the tail.

Lubarsch has published a paper on fluorescence, in which
lie concludes from his investigations (l) that for each fluo-
rescent substance there are only certain rays of light causing
fluorescence; (2) that the color of the fluorescent light de-
pends on the rays of incidence, and follows Stokes's law ; and
(3) that the most refrangible fluorescent rays produced by
sunlight correspond to that place in the spectrum where the
liquid shows its maximum of absorption, provided its fluo-
rescence proves a simple one when examined by prismatic
analysis of the linear spectrum.

Mascart has made some very delicate experiments on the

Ixviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

effect of the translatory motion of the earth on tire rgfrangi-
bility of light, in continuation of those made by Arago, and
with reference to Fresnel's theory. His apparatus was ar-
ranged underground, so as to be free from diurnal thermal
changes. The collimator was turned to the west, so that at
mid-day and at midnight the rays entering it would be mov-
ing, the one with the earth in direction, the other opposed to
it. A very numerous series of observations showed that the
change of deviation thus produced is entirely inappreciable,
and this with a perfection of methods which would detect a
twentieth part of that which Fresnel's formula supposes.
Indeed, in using mixed films, for example, Mascart shows
that the length of the apparent paths of the interfering rays
is not changed by this condition by one two-hundred-thou-
sandth part, that in observing Newton's rings it is not one
four-hundred-thousandth, and that in the fringes produced
by double refraction there is not produced by the movement
of the earth a change in the path of the two rays of one-mill-
ionth part.

One of the most valuable optical discoveries of the year
is that made by Wolcott Gibbs, of a new physical constant,
which he calls the " interferential constant." It is well
known that when interference colors are viewed through a
prism a series of dark bands appears in the spectrum, known
as Talbot's bands. The number of these bands between any
two lines in the spectrum may be calculated when we know
the thickness of the plate producing the interference, the in-
dices of the given spectrum lines, and their wave-lengths.
If now the thickness of the plate be made unity, and the
formula thus modified be divided by the density of the sub-
stance composing the plate, an expression will be obtained
of a quantity called an " interferential constant." It repre-
sents the number of bands in the spectrum between two rays
whose indices are given, for a thickness of the plate equal to
a unit of density. This number is for each chemical sub-
stance a characteristic optical function, and independent of
the temperature. Its value will apparently be fully equal to
the other physical methods of analysis, such as density, boil-
ing point, specific volume, rotatory power, etc., while in some
examples given it finds important application in quantitative
analysis. Moreover, it appears that the interferential con-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. J x ix

stant of a compound may be tolerably well calculated from
those of its constituents.

Descloizeaux has published an elaborate paper on the dou-
bly refractive properties of the triclinic feldspars albite, oli-
goclase, labradorite, and anorthite; in which he shows that,
though so difficult of exact determination by present phys-
ical or chemical means, these feldspars may very readily be
distinguished from each other by their optical characters.

Noclot proposes to use either sugar, potassium bichromate,
or tartaric-acid crystals in place of aragonite for exhibiting
the phenomena of conical refraction. The two former crys-
tals arc cut without difficulty, since a natural face of the first
and a cleavage face of the second are normal to one of the
optic axes. But with tartaric acid it is necessary to get
such a face by trial. One is compensated for the labor,
however, by the result, a cone being obtained which, for the
same thickness of plate, has twice the angle of aragonite.

Mach has devised a new and convenient optical apparatus
for certain polarization phenomena. Above the Nicol eye-
piece of an ordinary polariscope is placed a small achromatic
prism. The field of view will appear, of course, uncolored,
but displaced toward the base of the prism. If now the
whole eye-piece thus arranged be made to rotate about a
vertical axis, each point of the field becomes a circle. If
now in the field a quartz plate be placed, cut perpendicular
to the axis, and which is covered with a screen having a
small hole in it, a circle of colored light will be seen by
persistence of vision, the order of colors being in the direc-
tion of rotation or the reverse as the quartz is right or left
handed. The same apparatus may be used to project the
phenomena on a screen. If an unachromatized prism be
used, the spectra of the polarization colors are obtained.

Adams has devised a new polariscope for examining the
rings of crystals, the objects had in view being (1) to obtain
a large field, (2) to secure the means of measuring both the
rings and the axial angles, and (3) to be able to immerse the
crystal in liquid. The peculiarity of the optical arrange-
ment is that the crystal section is placed at the common cen-
tre of curvature of two nearly hemispherical lenses, so that
its relation to these is unchanged when the crystal and
lenses are rotated about any axis parallel to its surfaces and
passing through this centre.

lxx GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

Spottiswoode lias constructed a modified form of polari-
scope, which lias some decided advantages. It consists of a
Nicol's prism as the polarizer, and a double-image prism as
the analyzer, the latter being so cut as to show one image in
the centre of the field, the other being excentric. By rapid-
ly rotating the analyzer, the ring image remains by persist-
ence and displays the phenomena, usually successive, simul-
taneously.

Becquerel, in a research upon magnetic rotatory polariza-
tion, has extended the list of substances possessing this prop-
erty, and has determined exactly the power of rotation for a
given thickness of plate and a given magnetic intensity. In
general, he finds that increase of magnetic rotatory power
follows increase of the refractory index.

Bertin has given a notice on projecting polarization phe-
nomena with the apparatus of Duboscq, dividing these phe-
nomena into three classes those requiring (l) parallel, (2)
divergent, or (3) convergent light.

Riche and Barely have reported upon the sources of illumi-
nation utilizable in photography, in which they give the re-
sults of their examination of eight different sources of light,
viz., the oxyhydrogen light, the Drummond or lime light,
zinc burning in oxygen, magnesium in air, a current of nitric-
oxide gas burning in a globe of carbon-disulphide vapor, a
jet of nitric oxide in a test-tube containing carbon-disulphide,
a jet of oxygen in the same, and a jet of oxygen in a test-
tube containing sulphur. The eight lights were photo-
graphically intense in the order above mentioned, the last
beinsr ei^ht times as strong as the first.

Vogel has proposed a simple form of camera for spectrum
photography, which consists simply of a box, in one side of
which is fixed, by means of a cork, a pocket spectroscope.
With this instrument a picture of the solar spectrum from II
to D was taken on silver bromide mixed with naphthalin-
red in three minutes.

MAGNETISM.

In Magnetism, Rowland has described a simple method
of determining the distribution of magnetism on iron and
steel bars by means of a small coil of wire one quarter to
one half an inch in diameter, containing from ten to fifty

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. lxxi

turns, which he calls a magnetic proof plane. The coil being
attached to a galvanometer, it is to be placed on the required
spot, and when the needle is at rest it is to be suddenly re-
moved to a distance ; the momentary deflection of the gal-
vanometer needle will be proportional to that component of
the lines of force at that point which is perpendicular to the
plane of the coil.

Thalen, the Swedish physicist, has written a paper on
some experiments which he has made in order to ascertain
the location, depth, and magnitude of mines of iron by means
of magnetic measurements. By means of careful observa-
tions, isodynamic lines are constructed. Then the line which
joins the two points of maximum and minimum deviation,
or the magnetic meridian of the mine, gives the general di-
rection of the ore bed. The intersection of this line with the
neutral line indicates the point where it is most desirable to
begin mining. Finally, the distance of this latter point from
the point on the magnetic meridian of the mine where the
deviation is a minimum is one half the distance of the centre
of the mass of ore below the soil.

Beetz has succeeded in producing magnets by electrolysis,
the iron having in one case a magnetic moment per gramme
of 59, and in another of 214.

Herwig has observed that the extra-induced currents in
iron wires are of remarkable intensity, and supposes it to be
due to the transversal demagnetization of the iron.

Jacques, working in Professor Pickering's laboratory, has
made some experiments in answer to Jamin's criticism of
Ampere's theory of magnets, in which he shows not only
that Jamin's experiments are not themselves fairly capable
of such an interpretation, but also that, rightly interpreted,
they actually sustain the theory of Ampere.

Tommasi states the curious fact that if a current of steam,
under a pressure of five or six atmospheres, be blown through
a copper tube two or three millimeters in diameter coiled in
a helix about an iron bar, the bar becomes a magnet, and re-
mains magnetized so long as the steam passes.

Rowland proposes the use of a very small electro-magnet
placed upon the stage of the vertical lantern for showing dia-
magnetic experiments, and shows by theory that there is no
advantage gained by the use of a larger apparatus.

lxxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

ELECTRICITY.

Edlund has published a complete paper on the nature of
electricity, in which he maintains with great ability the the-
ory that electricity is identical with the luminiferous ether,
and in which lie deduces most, if not all, electrical phenom-
ena from this supposition.

Mixter has called attention to the remarkable increase in
length of the spark of the Iloltz machine by placing a mi-
nute gas jet between the balls affording the sparks. In this
way the spark, which before was less than ten inches, became
more than twelve, a brass ball having only a trifling influ-
ence of the same sort.

Rosetti has investigated the action of the Holtz machine,
and finds that it follows the law T of Ohm completely, but that
the electro-motive force and the resistance are enormous. In
his instrument the electro-motive force was 57,000 volts when
the atmospheric moisture was 0.35, and the resistance, w T ith
two turns per second, 2,680,000,000 ohms. From his experi-
ments he deduced 428 as the mechanical equivalent of heat.

Mr. W. Whitehorn has communicated to the Physical So-
ciety of London some experiments on the electric conductivity
of glass. He shows that, although a perfect non-conductor
at ordinary temperatures, yet glass, when heated to redness,
allows the electric current to pass freely. Even at the tem-
perature of boiling water a slight amount of electricity is
conve)'ed by it. The resistance at a temperature of 165 C.
is nearly forty times that observed at a temperature of 300.
The glass used by Mr. Whitehorn contained oxides of lead,
thereby making it a better insulator than other kinds of
glass.

Lesueur recommends strongly the use of zinc to prevent
the formation of incrustations in steam-boilers. His attention
was called to the subject by observing that the brass stays
of a surface condenser in a steam-vessel were reduced, after
a few years of service, to a mass of spongy copper, the zinc
having entirely disappeared. This having occurred repeat-
edly, the constructors of these Condensers placed zinc in the
condensers, and observed that not only was the brass no
longer attacked, but the boilers supplied from these con-
densers were entirely free from incrustation. Direct exper-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. lxxiii

iments of the author's have confirmed this fact. The ex-
planation of it he finds either in the electric current thus
generated in the boiler, the zinc being positive and the iron
negative, or more probably in the hydrogen continually set
free in minute quantity on the iron surface, thus preventing
the adherence of scale. (The author does not seem to be
aware that this same device is not new, having been employ-
ed for this purpose for many years in the United States.)

Ducretet has noticed a remarkable property of aluminum
when conveying a current. If in a voltameter one of the
electrodes be aluminum, the other being of platinum, the for-
mer being negative, water is decomposed, hydrogen is set
free at the aluminum surface, and oxygen at the platinum,
the current passing freely. But if the aluminum electrode
be made positive, no action takes place, and no current, or a
very feeble one, passes. In the first case an electric bell in
the circuit rings violently, in the second not at all. It is
proposed to call a voltameter thus constructed a rheotome.
It is doubtless capable of many useful applications.

Wilson has communicated a paper to the London Physical
Society on a method of measuring electrical resistance in liq-
uids, in which polarization of the electrodes is entirely avoid-
ed. A long, narrow trough is filled with the liquid to be
measured, and a porous cell filled with sulphate of zinc solu-
tion is placed at one end, and a similar one containing copper
sulphate at the other. In the first of these cells a plate of
zinc is placed, and in the second one of copper. The ex-
ternal circuit is completed through a resistance coil and gal-
vanometer. A suitable deflection is obtained at the start,
and then one of the porous cells is moved toward the other.
The deflection is of course increased, and resistance is intro-
duced to bring it back to that originally obtained. This in-
troduced resistance is evidently equal to that of the column
of liquid taken out of the circuit.

Foster has given graphical solutions of a number of simple
electrical problems. He prefers the method in which the or-
t dinates represent electro-motive forces and the abscissas re-
sistances, and has devised a simple instrument which he calls
a galvanometric sliding-rule, by means of which many prob-
lems of this sort may be rapidly and accurately solved.

Amory has published a brief note on the great facility with

4

lxxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

which the horizontal pendulum of Zollner can be used to dem-
onstrate Ampere's laws of the attraction and repulsion of
currents.

Barker has described a new and convenient form of lecture
galvanometer based on the vertical lantern. Above the hor-
izontal condensing lens of this lantern is the upper needle,
suspended by a filament of silk. To this a second needle is
attached by means of an aluminum wire passing through
the condenser and the mirror. The second needle swings in
a coil placed beneath the inclined mirror. Any current in
this coil deflects the lower needle, and, of course, the upper
one also. This latter only appears on the screen, together
with the graduated scale beneath it.

Daguenet has proposed a simple apparatus for showing
the phenomena of the spark in rarefied air. A barometer
tube a meter in length has a wire of platinum sealed in at
one end, and is then filled and inverted in the usual way.
On connecting one electrode of an induction coil with the
platinum, wire and the other with the mercury, the space
above the column is filled with a whitish light. By intro-
ducing air and plunging the tube in a deep cistern the spark
may be observed at various pressures, and by introducing
various other gases and liquids many beautiful effects may
be produced.

Spottiswoode has presented to the Royal Society a memoir
giving the results of his experiments on stratification in elec-
trical discharges through rarefied gases. The experiments
were undertaken to ascertain whether the stratification ob-
tained with the continuous discharge of large batteries could
not be obtained by a less expensive arrangement in an inter-
rupted circuit. The various means adopted are given, and
the peculiarities of the discharge are described. Phenomena
analogous to those obtained with the coil were obtained with
the Holtz machine.

Becquerel has studied the action of magnetism on the in-
duction spark, and shows that the loud sound which is pro-
duced when the current which flows around a powerful elec-
tro-magnet is suddenly broken between the poles is due
solely to the mechanical action of the magnet, the same effect
being produced by a strong blast of air directed on the
spark at the instant of breaking circuit.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. lxxv

Schrotter has proved that when the spark passes through
a Geissler tube containing phosphorus vapor, the walls of the
tube are covered with a thin layer of amorphous phosphorus.
Moreover, if the vapor is contained between two sealed
tubes, and the spark passes through the interior one, the
same effect results, showing that it is due to induction.

Terquem and Trannin have described a new and conveni-
ent form of apparatus for piercing glass by the electric spark.

Pickering and Strange have given the results of their
measurements on one of Farmer's large dynamo-electric ma-
chines. With a speed of 1280 revolutions per minute, a light
of from 650 to 900 candle-powers was obtained.

A large Gramme magneto-electric machine was received
from Paris in February by the University of Pennsylvania,
at Philadelphia, which gives very remarkable results when
used for producing the electric light.

Champion, Pellet, and Grenier have published a memoir
upon the applications of electricity to the firing of blasts, of
torpedoes, and to mining purposes generally, in which are
considered the recent improvements in electromotors, in
primers, and in fuses, with the various methods of using
them to the best effect. *

CHEMISTRY.

General Chemistry. Some advance has been made in
chemical theory. Michaelis and Wagner have shown that
while two bodies having the empirical constitution of ethyl
sulphite are known, yet only one of these is the true sulphur-
ous ether, as proved by its mode of preparation. In this lat-
ter compound the ethyl groups are both united to the thionyl
by oxygen, and hence the sulphur in the radical must be a
tetrad. Zimmermann has made a similar research on ethyl
phosphite, and comes to the conclusion that phosphorous
acid is a trihydroxyl derivative of phosphorus, and that in
the ether neither of the ethyl groups is directly united to
the phosphorus, since in that case ethyl -phosphinic acid
w T ould appear as a decomposition product. From this the-
oretical position the author proceeded to prepare tri-sodium
phosphite, which he obtained only as a thick sirup, but in
which the ratio of the phosphorus and the sodium could be
determined.

lxxvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC A>*'D

Friedel has produced a direct union of methyl oxide and
hydrogen chloride a body which, since both of its constit-
uents can exist free, must be classed with the molecular
compounds of Kekule. But Friedel shows that this body is
not decomposed when converted into vapor, and hence argues
that the ordinary rules of chemical union should be extend-
ed to it. This can only be done by supposing its oxygen to
act as a tetrad or its chlorine as a triad. Since hydrogen chlo-
ride and methyl chloride do not unite even at 18 to 20,
the author inclines to the former view, and supports it by
other cases, such as water of crystallization a view of the
matter which was taken some years ago by Wolcott Gibbs.

Hiibner has shown that benzoic acid will set nitrobenzoic
acid free from its salts. As the latter is the stronger acid,
the fact is an important one in chemical dynamics.

Meyer and Lecco have sought to fix the equivalence of ni-
trogen in ammonium compounds by an examination of the
chloride of di-ethyl-di-methyl-ammonium, derived (a) from di-
ethyl-amine, and (b) from di-methyl-amine. If the same chlo-
ride is formed by these two processes, then ammonium is a
derivative of quinquivalent nitrogen ; if two isomeric chlo-
rides result, then nitrogen is a triad in ammonium com-
pounds. The most minute examination failed to show any
difference in the bodies obtained, and hence confirms the va-
riability of nitrogen equivalence. They afterward proved
that in the higher substituted ammonias no exchange of rad-
icals takes place within the molecule; thus answering Los-
sen's objection to the results they had previously obtained,
which proved that ammonium chloride and its substitution
derivatives were atomic and not molecular compounds, and
that hence the nitrogen in them was quinquivalent.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.

In Inorganic Chemistry Pebal lias examined euchlorine
and hypochloric acid critically, and comes to the conclusion
that the former is a mixture of the latter and free chlorine in
variable proportions. He assigns to the latter the formula
C10 2 .

Gopncr claims to have shown that the so-called hydrate
of chlorine is really a hydrate of a molecular union of hydro-
chloric and hypochlorous acids. He bases his opinion on the

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. lxxvii

fact observed by him that when this hydrate acts on mer-
cury, mercuric and not mercurous chloride results. To this
view Schiff decidedly objects, both on grounds of antecedent
improbability and of experimental evidence.

Kingzett has succeeded in crystallizing a hydrate of cal-
cium hypochlorite from a saturated solution of bleaching-
powder.

Reyman has detected bromoform in commercial bromine,
and says it may easily be recognized by its odor, and
by the fact that it lessens the solubility of the bromine in
water.

Buchanan, chemist to the Challenger expedition, finds that
sea-water, artificially cooled, crystallizes in hexagonal tables,
the water from the melting of which yields 1.578 grammes
of chlorine to the liter. Iceberg ice, on the contrary, gave
only 0.052 to 0.1723 gramme in a liter.

Deering has noted some points worthy of notice in exam-
ining waters by the ammonia method. He observes that
the tint after the addition of the Nessler solution increases
constantly in depth ; hence he makes a caramel solution aft-
er ten minutes to imitate the distillate, and uses that for
comparison. He also notes that distilled water contains
ammonia ; that potable waters yield ammonia in the second,
third, and fourth fractions ; that commercial stick potash
gives ammonia when distilled with water ; and that an
aqueous extract of peat gives much ammonia when distilled
with sodium carbonate.

Schone has proved the presence of hydrogen peroxide in
rain and snow water collected in the vicinity of Moscow.
Only four out of one hundred and thirty specimens of rain,
and twelve out of twenty-nine of snow, failed to give the re-
action. Quantitatively the amount in rain varies from 0.04
to one milligramme per liter. The daily maximum was
reached between 12 and 4 o'clock P.M., and the annual in
August. The peroxide is supposed to exist in the air both
free and in solution, and in the amount of 0.000000268 c. c. in
a liter.

Scheurer-Kestner has observed that the white fumes ac-
companying the sulphurous oxide which is produced by the
combustion of iron pyrite are caused by the presence of sul-
phuric oxide, and that the sulphuric oxide is produced by

lxxviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

the oxidation of the sulphurous oxide by air m presence of
ferric oxide' at a high temperature.

Nichols, under the direction of the State Board of Health
of Massachusetts, has examined the composition of the air at
different depths below the surface of the " Back Bay lands"
in Boston. In three experiments, the depths being three and
a half, two, and ten feet respectively, no hydrogen sulphide
was detected, ammonia was found in minute quantity, and
carbonic -dioxide gas existed in proportions varying from
one and a half to twenty-one parts per thousand of air.
This amount was approximately proportional to the depth,
and reachecL a maximum in August and September.

The subject of nitrification in soils has been studied by
Fittbogen, who has made a series of experiments on the effects
of air, with various compounds of potash, lime, magnesia, and
of other substances, including quartz sand, on the formation
of nitric acid and ammonia in peat. The greatest gain of
nitric acid was produced by carbonate of potash ; carbonate
of lime, caustic lime, and caustic magnesia were next in order
of efficiency ; with gypsum and sand less nitric acid was
formed than when the peat was simply exposed to air, with
no admixture. The amount of ammonia in the peat increased
under the influence of air alone, but decreased in each case
when mineral matters were added to the peat. Fittbogen
suggests that the marked power of carbonate of potash to
aid the formation of nitric acid from the nitrogen of organic
compounds in the soil may explain in part the usefulness of
wood ashes as a fertilizer. Their potash would not only act
directly as plant food, but would also be especially efficient
in furthering the change of the combined nitrogen of the soil
into forms more fit for the nourishment of vegetation.

Ditte has proposed a new and simple mode of determining
boric acid, which depends upon the crystallization of calcium
borate when a salt of boric acid is introduced into a fused
mixture of one part calcium chloride and three parts mixed
sodium and potassium chlorides. This crystallization takes
place upon the surface of the fused chlorides in the form of
a ring on the sides of the crucible. Being insoluble in water,
the calcium borate is left when the mass is treated with cold
water, and may be collected on a filter, dried, and weighed.

Schnetzler has investigated the action of borax upon

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. lxxix

fermentation and putrefaction, following out some experi-
ments made by Dumas. He finds that borax acts promptly
upon the protoplasm within living vegetable cells, causing
it to contract, to separate from the cell walls, and to con-
dense. All movement is at once stopped within the cell, and
the chlorophyll grains are changed in form. The cells of
yeast, of mould, etc., lose their vitality in a solution of borax.
Infusoria, rotifers, entomostracans, tadpoles are killed in such
a solution. In the infusoria the contraction of the sarcode
can be distinctly seen. Grapes and currants are perfectly
preserved by borax ; milk containing one grain of borax in
thirty cubic centimeters remained sweet for three months ;
and beef was preserved for a year and a half in a concentrated
solution, which was renewed three times, without the least
odor of decomposition. Borax is, therefore, strongly recom-
mended for the preservation of anatomical preparations and
for dressing: wounds.

Schutzenberger and Bourgeois have sought to throw some
light upon the production in plants of the so-called carbo-
hydrates by an investigation of the products resulting from
the solution of white cast iron (in which the carbon is com-
bined) when conducted at ordinary temperatures. They find
that the residue obtained on treating 100 grains of this iron
with a cold solution of copper sulphate is, after removal of
the copper, a brownish-black pulverulent substance weigh-
ing 7.135 grains, and consisting of carbon, 64 per cent. ; wa-
ter, 26.10; silica, 7.1; undetermined, 1.8. It appears to be
a hydrate of carbon, having three molecules of water united
to eleven atoms of carbon. Nitric acid oxidizes it to a red-
dish-brown amorphous substance, which the authors call
nitrographitoic acid.

Delachanal and Mermet have proposed a method for de-
termining the amount of carbon disulphide contained in the
alkali sulphocarbonates of commerce which are now coming
into quite general use for the destruction of the phylloxera.
The solution is precipitated with acetate of lead, the lead
sulphocarbonate decomposed into lead sulphide and carbon
disulphide by heat, the latter being carried over into sul-
phuric acid to retain the accompanying vapor of water, and
then into a tared portion of olive-oil, where it is retained.

Heumann, in a paper upon the cause of the luminosity of

lxxx GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

flames, gives experimental evidence to prove (A) that a
flame may be rendered non-luminous (a) by cooling it, (b)
by diluting it with an indifferent gas, the temperature of
combustion not being increased thereby, and (c) by energetic
oxidation of the luminous matter; and (B) that the lumi-
nosity may be restored (a) by heating the flame, (b) by raising
the temperature of its combustion, as by heating the gases
before they burn, and (c) by diluting the oxygen with an in-
different gas. In a subsequent paper he asserts, contrary to
the view expressed by Blochmann, that it is to the cooling
of the gas by the burner itself, or by some object introduced
into it, that the space between the flame and the burner or
the object is due.

Laspeyres has proposed a more perfect apparatus for the
direct estimation of water in minerals, etc., consisting of a
series of calcium-chloride tubes, through which a current of
dry air is passed, in which the substance is heated. The
chloride of calcium used is dried at 150 to 200 C.

Vierordt has suggested the use of his quantitative spec-
trum-analysis method in volumetric assay, and gives experi-
ments which show its very great advantages.

Volhard has aided analytical processes by describing a
new swimmer for burettes, a new form of ammonia appara-
tus, and a new calcium-chloride tube for organic analysis.

Bach has described some simple devices for laboratory
apparatus, viz., a water-blast, a wash -bottle with constant
stream, and a gas cock.

Griffin describes his new form of portable gas furnace, in
which a pound of cast iron can be melted in thirty-five min-
utes, and the new method of supporting crucibles in it.

Godeffroy has discovered that caesium salts give precipi-
tates readily with quite a number of metallic chlorides, thus
making the reaction with antimonous chloride previously ob-
served by him quite general. The reaction he has observed
with chlorides of the following metals, all the precipitates
being ciwstalline : iron, bismuth, zinc, cadmium, mercury,
copper, manganese, and nickel. Rubidium salts behave sim-
ilarly.

Kilson lias made a series of experiments on the salts (par-
ticularly the selenites) of the rarer earths, with a view to
determine the equivalents of the contained elements. He

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. lxxxi

concludes that glucinum has an equivalence of two, and be-
longs to the magnesium group, while yttrium, erbium, ceri-
um, lanthanum, and didymium have an equivalence of four,
like aluminum, iron, chromium, and indium, their double at-
oms, also, like the latter, having an equivalence of six.

Santesson has examined a series of niobium compounds,
and has minutely described the principal fluoniobates.

Hammerbacher has succeeded in discovering the presence
of thallium in carnallite, though the quantity was too small
to enable him to isolate it. Rubidium and coesium were also
detected by the spectroscope in this and in sylvite.

Hawes has made a chemical investigation of the trap-rocks
of the Connecticut Valley. The results show that the eject-
ed rock had originally the same composition, and hence, pre-
sumably, that wherever now found, it came in the first place
from the same source, and that a deep-seated one. Subse-
quent action has converted the dolerite into a diabase, the
principal action being upon the pyroxene, which was con-
verted into chlorite. The chief minerals composing the dole-
rite are pyroxene and labradorite sometimes anorthite
with a little chrysolite and apatite. Magnetite is also found
in these traps, in some of them to the amount of nearly four-
teen per cent.

Terreil has proposed a new method of producing pure nick-
el salts on a commercial scale without the emploj^ment of
either hydrogen sulphide or ammonia. His process consists
of four operations : first, solution of the nickel in acid ; second,
precipitation of the copper by iron ; third, peroxidation of
the iron, and transformation of the metals into sulphates ;
and, fourth, precipitation of the iron by barium carbonate
and crystallization of the pure nickel sulphate.

Treve and Durassier have experimented to ascertain the
relation which exists between the chemical composition of a
steel and its coercitive force. They find that up to a certain
limit (from 1 to 1.15 per cent, of carbon) the magnetic satu-
ration increases with the content of carbon. Durassier gives
a note of great practical value on the choice of steels for dif-
ferent purposes.

Hartley has given a simple mode of assaying an iron ore
when the facilities of a laboratory are wanting. The ore is
balanced (on a rude pair of scales without weights) against

4*

lxxxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

pure iron wire, both are dissolved and made tip to the same
volume, and one fiftieth of each is taken for titrition.

J. L. Smith lias discovered, in investigating the anomalous
fact that while ferric oxide as ordinarily precipitated and
dried is not magnetic, the oxide thrown down from solutions
of meteorites is invariably magnetic; that any solution of
iron containing nickel, cobalt, or copper gives a precipitate of
ferric oxide which becomes magnetic on drying. The exact
cause of this action is obscure. Chandler suggests the for-
mation of a saline oxide, analogous to the magnetic oxide of
iron, with these metals.

Boussingault has published an elaborate research into the
manufacture of steel by cementation, the analytical results
of which must prove of great value.

Bauer has examined the action of strong sulphuric acid
upon lead and lead alloys. He finds that small quantities of
antimony and copper increase the resisting power of lead to
this acid, but the bismuth in a lead alloy diminishes it.

Kaemmerer has succeeded in obtaining w r ell-defined crys-
tals of cadmium by distilling the metal in a current of hy-
drogen. The crystals are isometric, being octohedrons, do-
decahedrons, and their derivatives.

Delachanal and Mermet have prepared a compound of
platinum, tin, and oxygen analogous to the gold compound
known as the purple of Cassius. When the brown liquid
which is obtained when a solution of platinic chloride is
mixed with one of stannous chloride is diluted with water
and boiled, a brown substance is precipitated which, when
well washed with hot water, contains no chlorine, but only
oxygen, tin, and platinum. The authors have also prepared
the same substance by placing a strip of tin in platinic chlo-
ride. Its composition somewhat varies with its mode of
j}reparation.

Bibra concludes from his investigations that silver chlo-
ride when blackened by the action of light is not subchloride ;
the true subchloride, obtained by the action of hydrochloric
acid on argentous citrate, having the formula Ag 4 Cl 3 .

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.

In Organic Chemistry, Carnelley has shown that when the
mixed vapors of carbon disulphide and alcohol are passed

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. lxxxiii

over red-hot copper, earbonyl sulphide, ethyl hydride, and
copper sulphide are the normal products ; but that the ethyl
hydride breaks up into marsh gas, ethylene, acetylene, and
ethyl aldehyde.

Gladstone and Tribe have continued their researches upon
the action of their copper-zinc couple on organic bodies, and
have studied its action on chloroform, bromoform, and iodo-
form. In presence of alcohol the three bodies are split up in
the same general manner, acetylene and marsh gas being, in
addition to the haloid zinc ethylates, the hydrocarbon prod-
ucts. The amount of acetylene is least with chloroform,
greatest with iodoform.

Berthelot has contrived an interesting lecture experiment
for showing the direct union of the olefines with the hydrac-
ids. Two flasks of about three hundred cubic centimeters'
capacity are previously filled, the one with propylene gas,
the other with hydrogen- iodide gas. In the lecture these
flasks are opened and placed mouth to mouth, the joint be-
tween them being made tight by a band of rubber. Drops
of isopropyl iodide soon appear, and the combination is com-
plete in half an hour.

Riban has published an extended memoir on the terebenic
hydrocarbons and their isomers which is of great value. He
differs from Berthelot in many of his conclusions.

Bouchardat, by heating isoprene in a sealed tube to 280
-290 for ten hours, has succeeded in polymerizing it, and
converting it into a terpilene closely identical with oil of
turpentine.

Tilden has produced a new body by the action of nitrosyl
chloride upon oil of turpentine, which he calls nitrosoterpene.

Frebault has observed that a peculiar green coloration is
developed in oil of peppermint by the action of certain acids,
notably picric acid, which has a red fluorescence similar to
chlorophyll. He suggests, therefore, that this substance is
formed in the reaction.

Barbier has investigated the hydrocarbon discovered by
Berthelot, and called fluorene. By oxidation it yields di-
phenylene-carbonyl, and this acted on by sodium amalgam
produces fluorene alcohol in hard, white, hexagonal plates.
This substance is interesting as being the first alcohol which
by heat alone loses water and forms an ether.

lxxxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

Ekstrand has prepared the hydrocarbon retene from the
heavy oils obtained in the distillation of wood, and has stud-
ied its properties. It forms sulpho-conjugated acids, and by
oxidation affords dioxyretistene and two other bodies, both
monobasic acids.

Armstrong calls attention to some remarkable changes of
certain isomers in the aromatic series into each other, effect-
ed by changes of temperature; and hence infers that ex-
treme caution should be exercised in judging of the consti-
tution of these bodies.

Meyer and Ambuhl have succeeded in producing a com-
pound in the fatty series analogous to azobenzol in the aro-
matic. When solutions of diazobenzol sulphate and sodium
nitro-ethane are mixed, a yellow oily body separates, which
after purification crystallizes in square orange-colored plates.
It is azo-nitro-ethyl-phenyl.

Gutzeit has succeeded in isolating from the fruits of sev-
era! plants sufficient ethyl alcohol to prove that this sub-
stance, hitherto supposed to be solely a result of fermenta-
tion, is a normal constituent of the unfermented juices of
plants.

Renard has made some experiments on the action of elec-
trolytic oxygen upon methyl and ethyl alcohols. Using five
Bunsen elements, and 100 cubic centimeters of ethyl alco-
hol acidulated with five per cent, of a dilute sulphuric acid,
the action being continued for forty-eight hours, he succeed-
ed in proving the presence in the liquid of methyl formate,
aldehyde, ethyl acetate, acetal, and a new body ethylidene
monoethylate. It is acetal in which ethyl is replaced by
hydrogen. Sulphethylic acid was also produced in the elec-
trolysis. Methyl alcohol thus treated yielded carbon diox-
ide and methyl oxide gases, besides methyl formate, methylal,
and methyl acetate.

Wagner and Saytzeff have succeeded in synthetically pro-
ducing a new amyl alcohol. Of the eight isomeric amyl al-
cohols pointed out by theory, four are primary, three are
secondary, and one is tertiary. Of these, again, five were
previously known ; the new one now discovered is the sixth.
It is di-ethyl-carbinol, of course a secondary alcohol, and is
produced by the action of zinc-ethyl on ethyl formate, the re-
action being foreseen by theory before it was realized as fact.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. Ixxxv

Freund has examined the asserted production of trimethyl-
carbinol in ordinary alcoholic fermentation, and has been en-
tirely unable to find a trace of it in the products of distilla-
tion.

Berthelot has effected' a simple dissociation of aldehyde by
heating a mixture of five volumes of hydrogen and two vol-
umes of aldehyde vapor to a red heat for half an hour. The
products were carbonous oxide and methane.

Meyer has succeeded in producing acrolein by the im-
perfect combustion of ethylene. When to 100 volumes of
ethylene gas 62 to 65 volumes of oxygen are added and
exploded in a eudiometer, carbonous oxide, hydrogen, and
condensed hydrocarbon gases are formed, and carbon is sep-
arated. At the same time the carbonous oxide unites to
the undecomposed ethylene present, and produces acrolein.
This w T as recognized by its well-known properties, and by
conversion into acrylic acid.

Von Lang has measured the crystals of glycerin. They
are brilliant when in their mother-liquid, but deliquesce in
the air. In form they are orthorhombic, the ratio of the
axes a : b : c=l : 0.70 : 0.66.

Von Zotta has examined more closely the production of
glyceric oxide by the action of calcium chloride on glycerin.
The product is an oily liquid of specific gravity 1.16, con-
verted into glycerin again on boiling its aqueous solution.

Prevost has given a new and simple method of preparing
epichlorhydrin, which consists in warming dichlorhydrin in
a capacious retort attached to a receiver, and adding pulver-
ized sodium hydrate to it in the proportion of 250 grammes
to 550 cubic centimeters of dichlorhydrin, the temperature
being kept below 130. Almost pure epichlorhydrin distills
over.

Clin has given a method for the preparation of crystallized
monobromcamphor being camphor in which an atom of
bromine has replaced one of hydrogen by the direct action,
at 100 C, of bromine upon camphor. The specimens shown
to the French Academy were magnificently crystallized.

Bourneville finds that monobromcamphor (l) lessens the
number of beats of the heart, (2) lessens the number of in-
spirations, (3) lowers the temperature of the body, (4) pos-
sesses powerful sedative properties, and (5) produces ordi-

lxxxvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

narily no disturbance of the digestive organsr It lias been
used with good effect in nervous affections, even in cases of
loner standing.

Hesse lias published a valuable investigation giving the
exact data concerning the rotatory power of a large number
of organic bodies including the sugars on polarized light.

Kreusler has negatived the assertion of Eaoult that pure
cane sugar in aqueous solution, without the presence of air
or ferments, but solely by the action of light, became invert-
ed and yielded glucose. Solutions of various strengths were
sealed up in vacuo, and were exposed to direct sunlight when-
ever possible for eleven months. Not a trace of glucose could
be detected. In presence of air, however, some glucose is
formed ; and to this fact the author attributes the results
obtained by Raoult.

Gautier has effected an important synthesis likely to prove
of practical value. He has succeeded in uniting two mole-
cules of dextrose by abstracting from them a molecule of
water, thus forming a substance having the composition of
the compound sugars. The result was accomplished by the
action of hydrochloric-acid gas on the dextrose dissolved in
absolute alcohol. A substance was obtained which was more
analogous to gum and dextrin than to sugar in appearance
and taste, but which yielded again a simple sugar on heat-
ing, though this appeared not to be dextrose again, but to be
analogous to, if not identical with, inosite.

Giraud has given an analysis of gum-tragacanth, by which
it appears that sixty per cent, of it is a pectic compound ap-
parently identical with the pectose of Fremy, existing in un-
ripe fruits and in turnip roots, etc. Pectic acid and pectin
were both prepared from the gum. The other constituents
are water, twenty per cent. ; soluble gum, eight to ten per
cent. ; cellulose, starch, and mineral matters, each three per
cent.

Keichardt has prepared from the thoroughly exhausted
beet-root pulp a new carbohydrate isomeric with Scheibler's
arabinic acid, which he calls pararabin. The pulp consists
of 38.5 per cent, arabinic acid, 54 per cent, pararabin, and
7.5 per cent, cellulose.

Hofmann has examined a new red coloring matter, brought
into commerce within a few months under the name of eosin.

INDUSTRIAL PEOGEESS DUEING THE YEAE 1875. lxxxvii

It has an exceedingly rich tint, recalling that of rosaniline,
but inclining more to a garnet red. In mass it is a brown
powder with a greenish metallic lustre. Upon investigation
it proved to be a bromine-derivative of one of the remark-
ably fluorescent bodies discovered by Baeyer, and called
fluorescein, obtained by the action of phthalic oxide upon
resorcin. Its composition proved it to be a phthalein of di-
bromresorcin, and this was confirmed by its successful syn-
thesis, by the action of bromine on fluorescein.

Benedikt has prepared phlorein by the action of nitrous
acid on .phloroglucin. It is a beautiful dark-green powder
with a metallic lustre, dissolving in caustic and carbonated
alkalies with an intense violet color. As it was found to
contain nitrogen, its allies, brasilein and hsematein (coloring
matters from Brazil-wood and logwood respectively), were
examined, and found also to contain it, having been hereto-
fore overlooked in the analysis.

Liebermann has investigated the coloring matter known
as emodin, which accompanies chrysophanic acid in the root
of rhubarb. Distilled with zinc dust it yielded a substance
closely resembling anthracene. But on treating it with
acetyl oxide, a mono- and a tri- acetyl derivative were ob-
tained, and it was shown to be a derivative of methyl-an-
thracene, the next higher homologue of anthracene. Fur-

/ Cj CD

ther examination proved emodin to be trioxymethyl-anthra-
quinone.

Liebermann and Fischer, on account of the importance of
the oxyanthraquinones as coloring matters, have sought to
discover a method by which they could be converted the
one into the other. From purpurin they prepared purpu-
ramide ; and by the action of nitrous acid on this they ob-
tained a bioxyanthraquinone which proved to be identical
with the purpuroxanthin of Schiitzenberger, obtained in quite
a different way.

Claus has discovered in the alizarin paste of commerce a
peculiar substance which dissolves to a blood-red liquid with
alkalies. It crystallizes from acetic acid in large dark-brown
needles with a bronze lustre. At 305 to 310 C. it sublimes,
and condenses in orange needles. On examination it proved
to be the dioxyquinone of chrysene, i. e., the alizarin of chry-
sene. Hence Claus gives to it the name chrysezarin.

lxxxviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

Stenhouse and Groves have shown that, by^the prolonged
action of chlorine upon pyrogallol, two new bodies are form-
ed, which they call respectively mairogallol and leucogallol.
The former is produced by a long-continued action of the
gas, and crystallizes from boiling glacial acetic acid, or from
mixed ether and glacial acid, in brilliant orthorhombic prisms.
Leucogallol forms crystalline crusts composed of minute col-
orless needles.

Lorin has described a method of preparing concentrated
formic acid, which consists in adding to concentrated glyc-
erin, contained in a tubulated retort, and heated to 87, de-
hydrated oxalic acid in powder, repeating the process when-
ever the evolution of gas ceases. The formic acid which
distills over is rectified, and then contains ninety-four per
cent, of real acid.

Bremer, by the action of phosphorus and iodine upon or-
dinary tartaric acid (dextrorotatory) in presence of water in
a sealed tube, has succeeded in obtaining from it a new malic
acid, which also rotates to the right. He is now experiment-
ing upon loevorotatory tartaric acid, in the hope of producing
a left-handed malic acid, and by the union of the two an in-
active acid.

Carey Lea has published a valuable modification of the
usual iron test for hydrocyanic acid. If a little uranic ace-
tate be added to a solution of a ferrous salt, there is thrown
down in presence of a soluble cyanide a purple precipitate.
One five-thousandth of a grain of hydrocyanic acid gives,
when thus treated, a perfectly distinct reaction. He also
recommends the use of ammonio-ferric citrate, in connection
with ferrous salts, in the Prussian-blue test. In this way
one two -thousandth of a grain of potassic cyanide may be
detected, a delicacy far greater than has been before claimed
for this test.

The crude acids of the native petroleum of Wallachia have
been examined by Hell and Medinger. The second run of
the still yields to caustic soda an acid which, after solution
in water and treatment with sulphuric acid, collects as an oil
on the surface, and is called "mineral oil" by the workmen.
This is a mixture of several acids, probably homologous, but
their separation is exceedingly difficult. An ethyl-ether of
one was finally obtained, whose saponification yielded the

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. lxxxix

acid as a colorless liquid of specific gravity 0.982. It is a
weak acid, its sodium and potassium salts being of the con-
sistency of soft soap. It is a fatty acid, but does not belong
to either of the three series of fatty acids now known.

Berthelot has observed that perfectly pure acetic oxide is
not changed into the sodium salt in presence of sodium hy-
drate, even after the anhydride is completely dissolved.
The acetic oxide, therefore, even when dissolved, may exist
for some time in contact with water, and even of soda, with-
out union. In presence of an alkali the union is much more
rapid, taking place in the course of two or three minutes,
whereas in the case of water it requires more than an hour.

Carey Lea publishes some experiments which show that
methyl nitrate is not nearly so explosive as has been stated
by Girard. It does not explode by percussion, and the ex-
plosion is feeble when the liquid is heated. Nevertheless, he
thinks a few suggestions desirable on the precautions to be
taken in its manufacture on a large scale.

Klippert has prepared ethyl orthosilicate very readily by
the action of silicon fluoride upon sodium ethylate.

Pinner has effected a synthesis of malonic acid by boiling
ethyl chloracrylate with barium hydrate for a long time.
The conversion of the one into the other raises some interest-
ing theoretical questions.

Ramsay has examined the properties of ethyl-thiosulphate
of sodium prepared by the action of ethyl bromide on sodium
thiosulphate. He finds that it is exceedingly unstable, de-
composing spontaneously in a few weeks. The precipitates
produced in its solutions by silver, lead, or barium nitrates
are even more rapidly decomposed, only a few hours being
required. When distilled with phosphoric chloride a com-
plex reaction takes place, ethyl disulphide being one of the
products.

Zollner and Grete have made a series of experiments in
the Royal Agricultural School at Vienna upon Dumas's rem-
edy for the phylloxera, that pest of the grape-culture. They
find that while his potassium sulphocarbonate will do the
work, yet that the ethylsulphocarbonate will do it better,
since, while it also evolves the effective carbon disulphide, it
does not evolve the deleterious hydrogen sulphide. More-
over, it is more readily made, and is cheaper. They recom-

xc GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

mend more especially, however, the amylsulphocarbonate of
potassium as being cheaper, costing only about fifteen cents
per pound.

Kolbe has further investigated the fact, observed by his
assistant, Ost, that while sodium silicate yields on dry distil-
lation sodium sodiosalicylate, potassium salicylate similarly
treated yields potassium paraoxybenzoate. He finds that
the barium, strontium, calcium, and magnesium salts act like
the sodium salt, and that the potassium salt does the same
when heated only to 145. He recommends this as the best
method for the preparation of paraoxybenzoic acid. A series
of papers lias been published in Kolbe's Journal by Neu-
bauer, Kolbe, Wagner, Fontheim, Ziirn, and others upon the
antiseptic action of salicylic acid. It has come very ex-
tensively into use, having, for example, entirely replaced
phenol in the lying-in hospital of Leipsic.

Weiske proposes the use of salicylic acid in titrition, es-
pecially in acid ime try. A convenient quantity of it is dis-
solved in distilled water, and a few drops of ferric chloride
solution is added. To the intensely colored solution soda
solution is added to exact neutralization, the color changing
to yellowish-red. If a few cubic centimeters of this liquid be
added to the acid to be titered, the color becomes of a deeper
violet as the soda solution is added, reaching its highest in-
tensity just before neutralization, and becoming colorless on
the slightest excess of alkali.

Knop has made a series of experiments to ascertain the
action of salicylic acid upon vegetation. He finds that it has
a marked depression of action upon the vegetative activity
of cells, whether these be the chlorophyl cells of the higher
or the non-chlorophyl cells of the lower orders of plants, pro-
vided only the acid be free. Of fifteen grains of corn soaked
in water containing - 2 - * u of this acid, fourteen failed to
germinate. Moreover, mould is prevented by a quantity of
salicylic acid as minute as this.

Rautert has given an improved method of purifying sali-
cylic acid by distilling it in a current of superheated steam.
Recrystallization from water makes it snow-white.

Kolbe lias thoroughly investigated the properties of his
"salylic acid" obtained by reducing chlorsalylic acid with
sodium amalgam, and has come to the conclusion that it is

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. xci

nothing but benzoic acid to which some foreign fatty sub-
stance, formed at the same time, obstinately adheres. When
oxidized by potassium permanganate, pure benzoic acid crys-
tallizes from the solution.

Hartmann, following Kolbe's lead in proving that when
chlorsalylic (metacnlorbenzoic) acid was reduced with so-
dium amalgam, benzoic acid resulted, has reduced chlordra-
cylic (parachlorbenzoic) acid by the same means, and has
also obtained benzoic acid as the reduction product.

Boussingault calls attention to the uncertainty of the gua-
iacum test for kirsch cordial. He states that the blue color
is not characteristic, since it is developed in zwetschen or
prune cordial, and does not always appear in genuine kirsch.
Upon investigation, he finds that the blue coloration is due
to the presence of copper, and asserts that any specimen of
kirsch which is blued by guaiacum will give with potassium
ferro-cyanide a red precipitate of copper ferro-cyanide.

Weith has shown that, by the action of ammonium chlo-
ride on methyl alcohol, there is produced both tri-methyl-
amine and tetra-methyl-ammonium, the whole of the chloride
being thus converted.

Drechsel has succeeded in forming trimethyl-phosphine
by heating together phosphonium iodide and carbon disul-
phide.

Engel has discovered some new reactions of glycocoll. It
gives with ferric chloride an intense red color, and it devel-
ops a blue coloration when treated with a drop of phenol
and sodium hypochlorite is added. The author can not get
the blood-red coloration as observed by Horsford when gly-
cocoll is boiled with a solution of potassium or barium hy-
drate ; he hence supposes that Horsford's substance was not
pure.

Baumann finds that Hallwachs's amido-dicyanic acid, by
heating with sulphuric acid, is converted into biuret.

Engel has given evidence to show that taurin, generally
considered to be isethionamide, is really an amic acid. In
the first place, it forms salts, that with mercury having been
analyzed; and, secondly, treated with cyanamide in excess,
it yields a taurin-creatin.

PonomarefT, by the action of persulphocyanogen upon am-
monia at 100, obtained two products : one the thiomelanuric

xcii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

acid of Jamieson; the other a new body, which he calls thi-
ammelin.

Hesse has given some simple methods of testing the cin-
chona alkaloids. He distinguishes quinidine from quinine,
cinchonine, and cinchonidine by means of the behavior of
water and ammonia with their iodhydrates. If to half a
gramme of salt to be tested ten cubic centimeters of water
be added, the whole warmed to 60 C, and half a gramme
of potassium iodide be added, allowed to cool, and after the
lapse of an hour filtered ; then, if the quinidine be pure, no
turbidity results on adding a drop of ammonia. A precip-
itate under these circumstances proves the presence of one
of the other three alkaloids.

Howard has made an examination of the bark known as
Cinchona pelleter ana, in order to prove finally the existence
or non-existence of the alkaloid aricine. His results confirm
those of other observers, and point strongly to the existence
of aricine as a distinct alkaloid.

Gorup Besanez notices the introduction into commerce
from Manilla of a brown extract from Echitas scolaris, a tree
belonging to the Apocynacea3, as a febrifuge, under the name
Ditain. He succeeded in extracting from it a crystallized
non-volatile alkaloid. It is offered as a substitute for qui-
nine.

Jobst and Hesse subsequently made an exhaustive investi-
gation of dita bark, which came from the Philippine Islands.
From it had been obtained by Gruppe the substance called
ditain, which the authors believe to be of uncertain composi-
tion. They confined their examination to the bark itself,
and obtained from it several bodies, to which they give the
names ditamin, echikautschin, echicerin, echitin, echitein, and

echiretin.

PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY.

In Physiological Chemistry, Boehm lias continued his ex-
periments on the respiration of water plants. He finds that
much less oxygen is consumed by them than by land plants,
and correspondingly much less carbonic acid is evolved. In-
deed, he thinks the relation between the two much the same
as between ^ill-breathing and warm-blooded animals. When
dead, these water plants undergo a fermentation, attended
with the absorption of hydrogen. He has more recently

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. xciii

studied the decomposition which marsh and water plants un-
dergo under water. He finds that the butyric fermentation
takes place, that carbon dioxide and marsh gases are evolved,
and that the liquid becomes alkaline from the evolution of
ammonia. A partial conversion into peat is finally observed.

Bender has analyzed the gas given off by apples when
they are exposed to the air in a finely divided state. The
experiment was made on gas prepared by heating the apples,
cut in small pieces, in a flask filled with water from which
the air had been previously expelled by boiling. At 60 gas
bubbles appeared, and became rapid at 100. Four apples
yielded about 100 cubic centimeters of gas, composed in the
first experiment of 40.20 per cent, of carbonic acid, 0.43 per
cent, of oxygen, and 59.37 per cent, of nitrogen. In subse-
quent trials more care was taken to exclude the air, and the
gas collected consisted of 31.07 per cent, of carbonic acid
and 68.93 per cent, of nitrogen. The author thinks the car-
bonic acid the result of a continuous fermentation oin<r on
within the mass.

Boettger states that a dilute solution of ammonia, or a
rnoderateiy concentrated one of potassium or sodium hy-
drate, facilitates remarkably the germination of seeds, even
of coffee, which usually germinates with difficulty. Grains
of coffee moistened with such a solution of potash show, even
after the lapse of a few hours, a snow-white plumule one to
two millimeters long.

Pierce has studied the physiological action of cotarnine
as contrasted with that of hydrocotarnine. While half a
gramme of the former could be subcutaneously injected into
rabbits and kittens without effect, a similar dose of the latter
produced rapid and well-marked tremors, passing into severe
epileptiform convulsions, sometimes proving fatal.

Gerber has described a new and more accurate method for
the analysis of milk, by which he obtains some very satisfac-
tory results.

Gautier, by dissolving fresh blood-fibrin in a solution of
sodium chloride and dialyzing, has obtained a solution which
coagulates by heat, and exhibits nearly all the properties of
albumin.

Schutzenberger has continued his researches upon albu-
min, and gives now the general conclusion that albumin and

xciv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

its conveners arc combinations of urea or ofoxarnide with
cither saturated or non- saturated amic acids belonging to
well-known series.

Boussingault has made analyses of gluten biscuit, with
comparative analyses of other similar articles of food, with
a view of showing its real value when used as food in cases
of glycosuria. From his table it appears, for example, that
73 pounds of baker's bread introduces as much starch into
the system as 100 pounds of the gluten biscuit, while the
latter affords eisrht times as much albuminates.

Maly has published a paper on the chemical composition
and the physiological importance of the peptones.

Epstein and Mtiller have sought to throw some light on
the beneficial effect of phenol on glycosuria by ascertaining
whether phenol prevented at all the action of the liver fer-
ment on the glycogen. Their results were negative. Acids
suspend the action of this ferment, while alkalies simply
lessen it.

Thudichum has published an extended memoir on biliru-
bin and its compounds, in which he maintains that the trans-
formation claimed by Maly of this substance into ufochrome
has not yet been effected.

ScolosubofF has determined that the principal localization
of arsenic in animals poisoned with this substance is in the
nerve tissue. Hence, in all cases of acute poisoning, the
brain should especially be examined, since, when the case is
a very rapid one, even the liver may not contain a detectable
amount of this poison.

TECHNICAL CHEMISTRY.

In Technical Chemistry, Stierlien has given a method for
the detection of the artificial coloring matters used in red
wines, together with the results of his examination by it. In
these wines he finds logwood, Brazil-wood, red poppy, mal-
low, blueberry, cherry, elderberry, cochineal, litmus, aniline
red, and red beet.

Fordos has published an additional paper on the action of
liquids, used for food or medicinally, upon the so-called tin
lining of utensils which contain lead. He shows that the del-
eterious results of the use of such vessels are far more cren-
eral than is supposed.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. X cv

Miintz and Ramspacher propose to determine tannin in its
solutions by filtering these, under pressure if necessary,
through a piece of fresh hide. This combines with the tan-
nin, and the filtrate is entirely free from this substance. A
section of the skin afterward shows a line in the middle,
above which the skin has thus been converted into leather.

Vogel has continued his researches on the effect of color-
ing matters on the sensitiveness of collodion to the various
rays of the spectrum, and now concludes that the action of
the coloring matter may be quite different, according to the
nature of the silver salt employed. Naphthalin red, used with
silver bromide and silver chloride, gives to both an increased
sensitiveness to yellow rays ; while f uchsin acts very differ-
ently, being with silver bromide in complete accordance with
its absorption spectrum which is similar to that of naphtha-
lin red but giving to silver chloride but little increased deli-
cacy for yellow rays, but much for the violet ones. The same
fact he has observed to be true of certain colorless bodies ;
morphine, for example, increasing the delicacy of silver iodo-
bromide not only for the blue and violet, but also for the
green, while silver bromide is completely unaffected by it.
Hence, to produce the effect he at first described, three things
are necessary : first, the coloring matter must optically ab-
sorb the identical color which the collodion is to be made
sensitive to ; second, it must unite with any free bromine or
iodine ; and, third, it must not decompose silver nitrate, since
in that case it would injure the preparation of the plates.
The so-called night-blue, for example, possesses the first and
third conditions, but fails on the second. It has no action,
therefore, on the sensitiveness of silver salts to light of dif-
ferent colors.

Carey Lea has published a paper upon the influence ex-
erted by color in changing the sensitiveness of substances to
light. He finds, for example, that corallin increases the sen-
sitiveness of silver bromide to red rays, only moderately in-
creases it for yellow rays, and does not increase it at all for
green rays, contrary to the view of Yogel. He concludes
that there is no relation whatever between the color of sub-
stances and the color of the ray to whose influence they
modify the sensitiveness of silver bromide.

Vogel, however, maintains that while the chloride, bro-

xcvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

mide, and iodide of silver arc sensitive to rays of both high
and low refrangibility, this sensitiveness also depends on the
bodies which may be mixed with them, those colored bodies
which absorb certain colors (and which promote photograph-
ic reduction) increasing the sensibility of the silver salt for
the absorbed rays. Moreover, certain colorless bodies which
promote photographic reduction, and certain others which
influence the index of refraction, also modify the color-sensi-

bilitv.

MINERALOGY.

The mineralogists in this country and abroad have been
far from inactive during the past year, as, in fact, is well
shown in the long list of new minerals which is appended.
Their investigations have covered a considerable part of the
known mineral species, and have resulted in adding much to
what has already been published about them.

One of the most important of these memoirs is that by
Des Cloizeaux on the optical properties of the feldspar
family. He is a profound authority on such subjects, so
that these investigations, including a ready means for dis-
tinguishing the different feldspar species, become of very-
great value. The same author has given a crystallographic
and optical description of the rare species durangite, which
was named some years since by Professor Brush. Another
important French contribution to the science is a memoir
by Daubree on the recent formation of a number of minerals
in the thermal waters at Bourbonne-les-Bains ; these include
tetrahedrite, bornite, anglesite, etc. These observations are
important as bearing upon the paragenesis of minerals in
general.

The number of doubtful minerals has been diminished by
the chemical and microscopical studies of Mr. G. W. llawes,
who has shown that neither chlorastrolite nor zonochlorite
deserve places as distinct species. A similar service has
been performed by Professor Klein, who by a series of crys-
tallographic investigations has shown that the supposed wis-
erine of Kenngott is nothing but a peculiar form of octahe-
drite. Mr. llawes has also put the very doubtful mineral of
Liebe, diabantachronnyn, on a proper footing. The mineral
in question is important as occurring frequently in some ig-
neous rocks, and is now called diabantite. Professor Cooke

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. xcvii

has continued his investigations of the vermiculites, alluded
to in the last volume of the Annual Record, and has de-
scribed two new varieties, which throw light on the compo-
sition of the group.

Other important memoirs have been contributed by Mas-
kelyne in England, Yom Rath, Websky, Von Zepharovich,
and others, in Germany ; these are to be found in the vari-
ous journals, but it would be out of place to refer to them
here.

A variety of new mineral localities have been opened in
this country, which in future may be expected to produce
fine specimens. Perhaps the most remarkable discovery is
that of the very rare species samarskite, in large quantities
in North Carolina. Hitherto it has been known only in
small imbedded fragments, but now it has been found in
large masses : one obtained by Mr. J. Willcox weighed
about twenty pounds, and a second thirteen pounds. An-
other interesting locality is that of Pike's Peak, Colorado,
which has recently afforded crystals of smoky quartz, rival-
ing those of the Alps, and also very beautiful crystals of
a bluish -green feldspar (Amazon stone). The chondrodite
locality, at Brewster, N". Y., has produced some fine speci-
mens, and the crystals have been shown to be quite unique
in the complexity of their forms.

One of the most valuable additions to the list of minera-
logical books is the volume by Dr.Genth,on the mineralogy
of the State of Pennsylvania. It includes descriptions of
the various mineral localities in the state, with the results of
extensive chemical work by the author. Another important
publication is the continuation of the mineralogy of Russia
by Kokscharow, containing the results of much crystallo-
graphic research. Still another work is that completing the
series of Hessenberg's " Mineralogical Notices," published
after the death of the author, whose loss is a great one for
the science.

The following is a list of the new minerals recently intro-
duced into the science ; those from American localities are
mentioned in a little more detail than the others :

JByerite is a new variety of bituminous coal, described by
Mallet as occurring in the Middle Park, Colorado. It is re-
markable in yielding a large amount of gas and tarry oil.

5

xcviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

Chalcophanite is a new mineral from that most interesting
and prolific locality, the zinc mines at Stirling, N. J. It oc-
curs in small tabular crystals and crystalline masses, resem-
bling specular iron at first sight. In composition it is a hy-
drate of zinc and manganese, related to psilomelane. It
takes on a brass color on being heated, whence its name. It
was described by Dr. G. E. Moore in the July number of the
American Chemist.

Chlorotile. A hydrous arseniate of copper, of a pale
green color. Found by Frenzel at Schneeberg, Saxony.

Clarite. A supposed new sulphide of antimony and cop-
per, resembling enargite, from a mine in the Black Forest.
Described by Sandberger.

Cossaite. A mineral near paragonite, from the mines of
Borgofranco, Italy. Described by Gastaldi.

Frenzelite. A selenide of bismuth from Guanajuato, Mexi-
co. It occurs massive, with distinct cleavage; also in mi-
nute needle-like crystals. It has a bluish-black color, and
metallic lustre. It was first mentioned by Castillo, but since
then more completely described by Frenzel.

Garnierite / Nomrieite. Liversidge, in the Journal of the
Chemical Society, has given these names to two hydrous sil-
icates of nickel and magnesia found in serpentine at Noumea,
in New Caledonia. Both minerals are distinguished by
their apple-green color; they are supposed to differ some-
what in composition, as also in physical characters.

Hydrofranklinite. Another new mineral from the zinc
mines in New Jersey. It appears to be, like chalcophanite, a
hydrous oxide of zinc and manganese, but occurs in regular
octahedrons. It has been announced by Professor Roepper,
though not yet fully described.

Ilydrocuprite. Hydrous oxide of copper; occurring in
orange-yellow coatings at Cornwall, Pa. Described by Dr.
Genth in the " Mineralogy of Pennsylvania " already alluded
to.

Indianaite. A new porcelain clay from Lawrence County,
Indiana. Described by Professor Cox at the meeting of the
American Association at Detroit, in August.

Koppite. A mineral closely related to pyrochlore; from
the Kaiserstuhlgebirge, Baden.

Melanosiderite. This is a basic silicate of iron, related to

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. xcix

limonite. It is of a black color, vitreous lustre, and with a
conchoidal fracture. It is found at West Chester, Pa., and
was described by Professor J. G. Cooke.

Rauite. A hydrous silicate, perhaps identical with thora-
sonite. It is from the island of Lamo, near Norway.

JZivotite contains antimonic acid and carbonate of copper,
amorphous with yellow color. Described by Ducloux.

Siegburgite. A new hydrocarbon, containing eighty-five
per cent, of carbon. Found at Siegburg, near Bonn.

Wapplerite. An arseniate of lime, containing water. It
crystallizes in the triclinic system; and is allied to pharma-
colite. Found by Frenzel at Joachimsthal.

In addition to the above, Scacchi, in a recent memoir on
the eruption of Vesuvius in 1872, has described the following
new minerals found by him as products of sublimation : Ate-
lite, chlorocalcite, cryptohalite, chloromagnesite, chlorallumi-
nite, cupromagnesite, dolerophanite, erythrosiderite, chloro-
thionite, hydrofluorite, hydrocyanite, proidonite, pseudoco-
tunnite. For their characters, as far as described, reference
must be made to the original research.

GEOLOGY.

Much attention has of late been turned to the study of the
crystalline rocks in the southern part of the great Appalachian
chain, and many important observations have been made. Ac-
cording to Eugene Smith, the state geologist of Alabama, we
find to the southeast of the undoubted paleozoic rocks in that
state a belt of crystalline limestones, which are overlaid, in
apparent conformability, by a series of strata estimated at.
15,000 to 20,000 feet, the whole dipping at high angles to
the southeast. These consist of greenish-gray hydro-mica
schists, the so-called talcose slates or nacreous argillites, in-
closing layers of quartz in their upper part, and succeeded
by great beds of quartzite, laminated, schistose, and conglom-
erate, with chloritic and talcose schists and roofing- slates.
These, regarded by Professor Smith as the equivalents of the
Ocoee group of East Tennessee, are by him considered prob-
ably of pre-Cambrian or Eozoic age, and referred to the Hu-
ronian.

They are succeeded to the southeast by gneisses, horn-
blendic rocks, and coarse mica-slates with granitic veins,

C GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

considered by Smith as belonging to the White Mountain
series, which alternate with belts of Huronian to the east-
ward. In one locality the schists are associated with a hy-
persthenic labradorite rock supposed to be Norian. The
unaltered paleozoic strata along the western border are de-
scribed as dipping toward and apparently passing beneath
the adjacent crystalline rocks, a phenomenon well known
throughout the Appalachian valley, and due to dislocations
in the strata.

The extension of this western belt of crystalline rocks into
North Carolina is also by Professor Kerr referred to the
Huronian, in which he includes all of the rocks in that
state described by Emmons as Taconic. There are good
reasons for regarding the lower portions of his Taconic sys-
tem as Eozoic. In his recent geological map of North Caro-
lina, Professor Kerr groups the crystalline rocks of the state
under the three heads of Granites, Huronian, and Lauren-
tian. Some portions of the latter area examined by the
writer have, however, been by him referred to the Mont-
alban or White Mountain series. Bradley has lately en-
deavored to show that the whole of these crystalline strata
in North Carolina and East Tennessee are the lower paleo-
zoic rocks, including the Cincinnati group, in an altered
condition, thus resuscitating the old views of Rogers, com-
bated more than thirty years ago by Emmons, and since
by Hunt and others. Bradley offers in support of this
view only conjectures based on supposed lithological paral-
lelisms, which, when we consider the great mineralogical
and physical differences, and the entire absence of organic
remains in the rocks in question, have very little weight.
The alteration and the uplifting of these crystalline strata
of the Blue Ridge are by Bradley supposed to be post-Car-
boniferous, which does not agree with the observations of
Fontaine and others, whose observations show these crys-
talline rocks to have formed the southeastern barrier of the
paleozoic sea.

Fontaine describes the Blue Rid^e in Virginia as having
an axis of coarse granitic and syenitic gneiss, referred by
him to the Laurentian series, which is seen near Lynch-
burg and in the Peaks of Otter, where these gneisses are
penetrated by intrusive syenites, and is developed in greater

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. c i

force as we proceed southwestward. Resting unconformably
on both sides of this ancient series is a group of schist-
ose rocks which to the northward conceal the Laurentian.
This series, which consists in large part of argillites and mi-
caceous and chloritic schists, with epidotic, hornblendic,
feldspathic, and quartzose admixtures, he compares to the
Green Mountain series, and suggests that they may be Hu-
ronian. To the east of the Laurentian, and apparently oc-
cupying a synclinal, in the schists just mentioned, is a series
of folded limestones, with micaceous schists, quartzites, and
roofing-slates, closely resembling the Taconic rocks of Berk-
shire County, Massachusetts, and apparently the prolonga-
tion of the Taconic belt indicated by Emmons to the east
of the Blue Ridge in North Carolina, and described by him
as extending northward through Virginia, into Maryland.
This, Fontaine thinks, may be altered Silurian, but he speaks
with doubt. These crystalline schists to the east of the
Laurentian axis are designated as the middle belt, and be-
yond is still an eastern belt of well-defined granitoid gneisses,
overlaid by mica-schists with gneisses, often hornblendic, dis-
posed in broad anticlinals and synclinals, with dips of from
40 to 50 to the east and west. These are said to have the
characters of the White Mountain series.

Along the western flank of the Blue Ridge, resting uncon-
formably upon the crystalline strata, is a series of sandstones,
shales, and conglomerates, rapidly augmenting in thickness
to the southwest, and attaining in the middle of the state
over 2000 feet, though not over 1000 feet at Harper's
Ferry. These strata, which underlie the so-called Calcifer-
ous formation, are destitute of all traces of organic remains
except Scolithus. They contain in the conglomerates peb-
bles of the crystalline argillites (Huronian), as well as feld-
spar and kaolin from the old Laurentian gneisses, showing,
as Fontaine remarks, that these crystalline rocks formed the
border of the ancient sea. The strata to the northwest
have been greatly folded and faulted, so that these beds in
many parts plunge beneath the crystalline Huronian schists,
the two dipping at high angles to the southeast, though un-
conformable. The limestones, which, near Harper's Ferry,
include a bed of limonite, also dip southeast at a very high
angle. In some parts of the valley the foldings and over-

cii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

turned dips are such that the Hudson River slates, accord-
ing to Fontaine, rest upon the Devonian, and even upon the
Lower Carboniferous of the North Mountain. Similar ob-
servations were long since, in this region, made by Rogers,
-.Emmons, and Lesley. In other parts of the valley, however,
this state of things does not exist, and the more ancient
slates and conglomerates repose with a high northwest dip
on the flank of the Blue Ridge.

An important deduction by Fontaine, from his examina-
tions of the rocks in Virginia, is that there is no ground for
the conclusions of H. D. Rogers that the folds of the Ap-
palachian system extend to the Atlantic, and are more com-
pressed next the ocean, while widening out to the west. In
fact, the White Mountain rocks of the eastern are less dis-
turbed than the Huronian of the middle belt. " Such a
connection does exist between the flexures of the Silurian,
Devonian, and Carboniferous areas, but the Blue Ridge is
the initial point on the east."

The writer may remark in this connection that these
strata from Harper's Ferry, for a few miles east along the
Baltimore and Ohio Railway, offer all the types of the Huro-
nian or Green Mountain series, while the gneisses and mica-
schists nearer Baltimore present the characters of the Mont-
alban or White Mountain series. Pebbles of these latter
rocks, derived from the Blue Ridge, abound in the con-
glomerates which with sandstones and shales make up the
Iron Mountain on the southeast side of the great Appa-
lachian valley in Grayson County, Virginia.

Dawson has lately discussed anew the facts with regard
to some of the Eozoic rocks of Canada, recalling his old ob-
servation that the post-Laurentian which in Madoc, Ontario,
contain eozoon, present also forms like Scolithus. He has
as;ain studied the conditions under which Eozoon Ccmadense
occurs in its original locality on the Ottawa, in the prov-
ince of Quebec. The eozoal limestone forms a thick belt in
the gneiss, but the eozoon is abundant only in a bed of four
feet, which contains bands and concretions of serpentine,
and is traversed by veins of chrysotile. Along with these
are laminated masses of serpentine and calcite which are
entire specimens of eozoon. Fragmental portions retaining
the structure of eozoon. are also dispersed in layers through

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. ciii

the adjacent beds of limestone, embedded in which are more-
over casts in serpentine of small chambers, single or in
groups, having the form and mode of aggregation of glo-
bigerina, but with the proper wall of eozoon. These he has
provisionally named Archoeospherhia. The eozoon is gen-
erally preserved by infiltration with serpentine ; but some
specimens in dolomitic limestone have their canals filled
with transparent crystalline dolomite, while the skeleton is
still pure carbonate of lime.

In Missouri the published results of the geological survey
by Pumpelly and Schmidt have added to our knowledge of
the ancient crystalline rocks which rise through the paleo-
zoic strata in the southeastern part of the state, and evi-
dently formed islands in the paleozoic sea. These eozoic
rocks consist in great part of stratified petrosilex, often jas-
per-like, and frequently becoming a feldspar- porphyry ; with
it are associated argillites and talcose slates, and more rarely
layers of quartzite and of crystalline limestone. The rocks
have been compared by Hunt with the similar petrosilex-por-
phyries of Lake Superior and of the eastern coast of New En-
gland, where they form a part of the great Huronian series.
They are the iron -bearing rocks of Southeastern Missouri,
in which the red oxyd is found either in beds, as at Pilot
Knob, or, according to Dr. Schmidt, in great veins, as in the
Iron Mountain. The granites of the region apparently break
through these ancient crystalline strata. Details are given
with regard to the numerous deposits of iron, lead, and cop-
per ores in the paleozoic strata, affording important data for
a theory of ore-deposits. The lead ores of this region are
not confined, as was formerly supposed, to the strata below
the Trenton, but are found in the sub-Carboniferous lime-
stones and even in the coal-measures. The similar deposits
of this ore in the valley of the Upper Mississippi, as is well
known, are in a formation just above the Trenton, and the
question is now raised whether throughout this wide region
the deposition of this metal went on at intervals throughout
the whole of the paleozoic period, or whether it was, as sug-
gested by Dr. Schmidt, introduced into these various forma-
tions at a later date.

In the lower Carboniferous a deposit of chert, which in
some localities is over one hundred feet in thickness, consti-

civ GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

tutcs one of the principal lead-bearing rocks in the region.
The coal in the northeast part of the state is remarkable for
occurring in deposits of very limited area, but of great thick-
ness, sometimes as much as twenty-live feet, with very little
of the usually accompanying strata. These accumulations
are supposed to have been formed in small hollows in the
surface of the lower Carboniferous limestone. An artesian
well lately sunk in St. Louis, Mo., has a depth of 3843 feet.
Beneath forty feet of surface deposits lie the Carboniferous
rocks, the base of which was reached at 883 feet. These are
directly followed by the limestones and shales of the Trenton
or Cincinnati group, measuring 421 feet, beneath which were
not less than 2489 feet of magnesian limestones with sand-
stones and some magnesian slates the whole resting on red
granitic rock, which was penetrated forty feet. Salt water
was first met with in the Trenton limestone at 1220 feet,
and the lower strata yielded brines which contained seven
and eight per cent, of saline matter. The temperature in
these lower depths is from 105 to 107 Fahr.

The paleozoic coal-formation of the Appalachian is for con-
venience divided into a lower and an upper series; the base
of the latter being the great Pittsburgh seam, which is a sheet
of coal known over a length of 225 miles and a breadth of 100.
Many questions have arisen as to the equivalency of the
seams in the lower coal-measures in different parts of the
coal-field. Counting from the base of the formation, which in
Ohio and Western Pennsylvania is found at a vertical dis-
tance of from 500 to 900 feet beneath the Pittsburgh seam,
Andrews and Fontaine, from their discoveries in AVest Vir-
ginia, have arrived at the very important conclusion that
the base of the coal-measures of the lower series on the Ka-
nawha is not less than 3100 feet below the Pittsburgh seam.
From this it would follow that in this region there was, at
the beginning of the coal period, a vast basin or depression
between highlands of older rocks to the southeast and the

CD

great plateau of the Waverley sandstones rising toward the
ridge of the Cincinnati uplift to the northwest. Nor was it
until this great valley had been filled up with 2000 feet or
more of coal-measures, including the important coal-beds of
West Virginia, that the general subsidence allowed the coal-
formation to be spread over the northwest plateau to a depth

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cv

of a few hundred feet, which there intervene between the
unconformable floor and the Pittsburgh seam. Beneath this
lower series in West Virginia is a still lower group measur-
ing 1200 feet in thickness with coal seams, and having at
the summit a heavy conglomerate sand-rock. These corre-
spond to the sub-conglomerate coals studied by Lesley in
Southwestern Virginia, and to the small coal-beds lately
found by the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania in
the division No. X., or so-called vespertine strata, which lie at
the top of the Catskill Mountain group of the New York
survey. This series has been studied anew by Professor
Hall and Mr. Sherwood, confirming the old view of its geo-
logical distinctness, which had been disputed. It has been
traced in New York as far north as Schoharie Countv, and
carefully mapped. Six distinct and nearly parallel ridges,
synclinal in form, with eroded anticlinals, have been observed,
some of them carrying in their shallow folds the vespertine
and umbral beds, which farther southward lie beneath the
anthracites of Pennsylvania.

Andrews has inquired into the question of the supposed
equivalency of the coal seams of the anthracite region with
those of Ohio, Western Pennsylvania, and West Virginia,
which he regards as still undetermined. He concludes, more-
over, from the various conglomerates to be found at different
horizons in the coal-measures, that the so-called basal con-
glomerate in Pennsylvania can no longer be regarded as
marking a geological horizon, but has only a lithological sig-
nificance.

The question whether the coal -formation of the Rocky
Mountains is to be classed with the cretaceous or the ter-
tiary has been much discussed during the past year, but ac-
cording to the late results of Major Powell the solution is very
simple. The workable coals, or lignites, as they are often
called, extend in this region throughout the whole of the cre-
taceous formation, which has a mean thickness of 6500 feet,
and through the inferior half of the tertiary, including the
Upper and Lower Green River beds (1500 feet), and the Bit-
ter Creek beds (3500 feet), making in all more than 10,000
feet of coal-bearing strata, which are overlaid unconformably
by newer tertiary rocks. There is, moreover, a want of con-
formity in this series between the Bitter Creek beds and the

5*

cvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

underlying Rock Springs group, which is cretaceous. The
strata from which Lesquereux obtained tertiary plants are
above this stratigraphical break, by which they are separated
from adjacent beds holding cretaceous mollusks. Thus a
more careful stratigraphical study has served to harmonize
the apparently conflicting evidence of paleontology. The re-
mains of the Dinosaurs of Black Butte are, however, accom-
panied by tertiary mollusks and plants. Record, 1874, p,
lxx.

Beneath the mesozoic rocks, which include Jurassic and tri-
assic strata, are immense thicknesses of paleozoic rocks, in-
cluding Carboniferous, Devonian, Silurian, and Cambrian, the
whole series, from the top of the tertiary to the paleozoic base,
having, according to the estimate of Major Powell, a thickness
of about 60,000 feet. Beneath all these is a series of crystal-
line schists, of which about 5000 feet have been measured.
The crystalline strata of this region, according to this ob-
server, are every where of great and unknown age. Record,
1873, p. xlvii.

Professor Marsh has discussed the cenozoic formations of
the West, and pointed out the existence of several great ba-
sins corresponding to fresh- water lakes of former periods,
which are now filled with deposits whose organic remains
enable us to assign them to different divisions of tertiary
time. The great Green River basin, lying between the Rocky
Mountains and the Wahsatch range, has the Uintah Mount-
ains on the south and the Wind River Mountains on the
north. Its nearly horizontal strata, with a total thickness of
6000 feet, rest unconformably upon the lignitic or cretaceous
coal-bearing strata (often highly inclined), and have yield-
ed the remains of not less than 150 species of eocene age.
This region remained dry land during the miocene time, per-
haps much longer, but was afterward submerged, and has
suffered great erosion. A still larger lake existed in eocene
time to the south of the Uintah Mountains, and at a much
lower level than the last. South of the Black Hills is a great
miocene area, the White River Lake basin, extending from
the Rocky Mountains to the 99th meridian, and from the
40th to the 44th parallel. Its strata, which consist of fine
materials, have a thickness of about 300 feet, and rest like
the preceding on the cretaceous. This area constitutes the

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cvii

well-known " bad lands " of that region. Another miocene
basin exists in Central Oregon, in great part concealed under
more recent basaltic rocks. These strata, which are more or
less inclined, and have a thickness of not less than 5000 feet,
include in their lower portions a fauna regarded as miocene,
but more ancient than that of the White River basin, which
is, however, represented in the upper portions of the Oregon
basin. Lying in part over the first-named miocene basin was
a great pliocene lake, having nearly the same limits as it to
the north and west, but with an area about five times as
large, and extending eastward and also southward nearly to
the Gulf of Mexico. The deposits of this pliocene area,
known as the Niobrara basin, attain a thickness of 1500 feet,
and contain organic remains which indicate a warm temper-
ate climate, while that of the eocene was tropical, and that
of the miocene intermediate between the two. The great
erosion which all this region has suffered is well set forth by
Dr. Hayden, when he states that from 10,000 to 15,000 feet
of strata, from the paleozoic upward, have been removed,
leaving only " what may be called remnants behind, occupy-
ing restricted areas. The hard and compact limestones of
the Silurian and Carboniferous ages are found to a greater
or less extent all over the Northwest. They yield much less
readily to erosion than the more modern rocks, and are con-
sequently to be found on the summits of the largest mount-
ains 10,000 and 12,000 feet above the sea."

Dr. Newberry, in his lately published volume of the geol-
ogy of Ohio, has given a full and careful discussion of all the
facts known with regard to the superficial geology of the
6tate and the adjacent regions, and has connected them with
the hypothesis of land-glaciation. Professor Dana has given
his views with regard to the former existence and extent of a
great New England glacier.

Mr. George M. Dawson has studied the physical geography
and superficial geology of Central Canada between the
Rocky Mountains and the great Laurentian axis, which from
Lake Superior stretches northwestward to the Arctic Sea.
Rising from the lowest plateau of the Red River and Lake
Winnipeg, 800 feet above the sea, we have to the west the
Great Plains of the middle plateau, 1600 feet above the sea,
and the third or western plateau rising to from 2500 to 4000

cviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

feet. Over the latter two are abundant deposits of unstrati-
fied drift, which in the middle plateau is almost wholly from
the crystalline rocks of the eastern range or Laurentian axis
and the limestones adjacent, while on the higher western
plateau, though boulders from the latter region still abound,
more than one half the drift is from the Rocky Mountains.
These themselves afford abundant evidence of glaciers. The
author conceives that sub -aerial denudation had already
given to the region nearly its present surface before the gla-
cial period. He concludes that the phenomena of the drift
in these regions do not require to account for them a polar
ice-cap, but are to be explained by the action of local gla-
ciers from the Laurentian axis drifted westward across the
submerged prairies toward the Rocky Mountains.

In England the nature and causes of the drift formation
have been much discussed. The intercalation of stratified
deposits in the unstratified drift, and the presence in both of
marine remains, apparently indicate for a part, if not the
whole, a submarine origin. In order to conciliate these facts
with the hypothesis of a great ice-sheet, Mr. Goodchild has
attempted to show that none of the phenomena prove the
former agency of the sea, but that all these deposits were
formed under land-ice, and in part by the agency of sub-gla-
cial streams, the ice -sheet having excavated from their
ocean-bed and pushed up on the land the marine deposits in
its onward march. There is, however, a strong reaction from
this hypothesis in England [Record, 1874, p. Ixxiv.], and sev-
eral of Goodchild's colleagues in the Geological Survey of the
United Kingdom have opposed him in recent papers, notably
Hardman, Dakins, and Ward. The latter observes, " The
difficulties involved in the theories of Croll, Belt, Goodchild,
and others of the same extreme school, certainly press upon
me and I think I may say also upon others of my colleagues
increasingly as the country becomes more and more famil-
iar in its features." He suggests, from the observations of
late arctic voyages, that prevailing winds acting upon the
surface-ice, rather than currents, are to be taken into account
in considering the distribution of drift boulders, and quotes
the lano-ua2;e of Sedgwick in 1842, who, referrino- to the
transport of granite blocks from the hills of Cumberland to
the shores of the German Ocean, says, "No one, I trust, will

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cix

be so bold as to affirm that an uninterrupted glacier could
ever have extended from Shap Fells to the coast of Holder-
ness, and borne along the blocks of granite through the whole
distance without any help from the floating power of water.
The supposition involves difficulties tenfold greater than
are implied in the phenomena it pretends to account for.
The glaciers descending from the Alps have an enormous
transporting power, but there is no such transporting power
in a great sheet of ice expanding over a country without
mountains and nearly at a dead level."

Campbell, the author of " Frost and Fire," who has de-
voted, he tells us, thirty-three years to the study of glacial
phenomena in both continents, and long held the hypothesis
of Agassiz, believing that all Northern Europe had been
buried beneath an ice-cap, has been led by further studies in
Russia and in North America to reject this view, and declares
that from the Caucasus to the Rocky Mountains he sees no
evidence of an ice-cap. He adds concisely that " the glacial
traces in North America seem to indicate the transfer of
oceans with their systems of circulation from one part of the
world to another by the elevation and depression of the
land."

Kinahan, of the Geological Survey of Ireland, has made
known in the western parts of Galway and Mayo a series
of crystalline rocks which may be compared with those of
our Appalachian belt. They consist of bedded granites and
gneissic and hornblendic strata, quartzites, limestones, mica-
ceous and talcose schists, serpentines, steatites, etc., and are
divided by the author into three groups, the united thick-
ness of which is estimated at over 10,000 feet. They are
wholly without fossils, and are penetrated by granitic and
other intrusive rocks. Being overlaid by fossiliferous strata
of Silurian (Llandovery) age, it is conjectured by Kinahan
that they may be altered Cambro-Silurian rocks. The sim-
ilar crystalline schists of Donegal, as long since pointed out
by the writer, are partly Huronian and partly Montalban.
The hasty generalizations and misinterpretations through
which in so many regions geologists have incorrectly re-
ferred crystalline strata like these to paleozoic or* more re-
cent times [Record, 1872, p. xxxvii.], have recently received
a further illustration in Carinthia, where, on the authority

ex GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

of Suess, the mica-schists and the granites of Casauna and
the Gailthal have been described as Carboniferous, and sup-
posed to be even more recent than certain strata undoubt-
edly of this age. Stache has shown that, besides the Car-
boniferous beds, important masses of fossiliferous Silurian
and Cambrian strata are present, and that the crystalline
schists of the region really occupy a position unconformably
beneath the old paleozoic strata.

The evidence accumulates that the whole Cambrian series
in Wales, as originally defined by Sedgwick [Record, 1872,
p. xxxvi.], extending upward to the unconformably overlying
May Hill sandstone (the equivalent of the Oneida of the
New York system), is a single physical series. The strati-
graphical breaks supposed by Ramsay to exist in Wales
above and below the Tremadoc rocks are not recognized by
Hicks in his recent study of the ancient rocks at St. David's.
The two most important paleontological breaks are at the
top of the Menevian and of the Tremadoc. The Silurian
and Cambrian nomenclature is asjain much discussed in En-
gland, and the fact that the Silurian of Murchison has not
and never has had any base-line is insisted upon. Some,
with Hughes, follow Sedgwick in confining the Silurian to
the strata above the May Hill sandstone, and give to the
rocks from this horizon to the top of the Tremadoc the
name of Upper Cambrian, originally applied by Sedgwick ;
while a greater number restrict the name of Cambrian to
the strata below the last-named horizon, and give the name
of Cambro-Silurian, or that of Lower Silurian, to the Upper
Cambrian. Dewalque has investigated the ancient rocks of
the Ardennes, in Belgium, and shown that the whole series
of the Cambrian from the Harlech to the Tremadoc inclu-
sive, is probably represented in that region.

The researches of J. Arthur Phillips on the metalliferous
rocks of Cornwall cover a great variety of important points.
He shows, from a large number of chemical analyses and
microscopic studies, that the so-called killas are more or less
crystalline schists, often containing crystallized magnetite,
quartz, chlorite, and hornblende; and points out that, though
of very \arying composition, they all differ so widely from
granite that no reconstruction or alteration of them could
ever convert them into this rock, as speculators in geol-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cxi

ogy have sometimes suggested. While some of the rocks
of this region hitherto called greenstones are shown to
be eruptive rocks, many of them are hornblendic schists.
The intrusive granites and the el vans or quartziferous por-
phyries of the region are very similar in chemical and min-
eralogical composition. It is well known that Sorby, from
a study of the vacuities in the minute cavities filled with
liquid in the quartz of granites, endeavored, by noting the
temperature at which these vacuities disappear from the
expansion of the liquid, to calculate the temperature at
which such rocks solidified a result which, if established,
would be of great importance to science. The studies of
Phillips, however, confirm the previous ones of Zirkel, that
the volume of the bubbles in the fluid-cavities has no con-
stant relation to the liquid, so that we can not in this way
attain any certain data. Both natural and artificial crys-
tals contain fluid-cavities, with bubbles of various sizes, as
well as cavities full of liquid, and others full of gas or vapor.
The vein -deposits of Cornwall, carrying copper and tin
ores with quartz, tourmaline, chlorite, calcite, fluorine, etc.,
have also been the subject of careful studies by Phillips,
who sets forth very clearly the evidences of their aqueous
origin ; and concludes that the repeated widenings of the
veins, of which there is abundant evidence, have been due
to the expansive force of crystallization in the fissures, as
long since pointed out by Hunt for the granitic veins of New
England. The original opening appears to have been only
a mere comminuted fracture of the rock in a given direction,
between the surfaces of which mineral substances have crys-
tallized from solutions, separating the fragments, and thus
giving rise to a brecciated vein-stone. The temperature at
which these materials have been deposited is supposed to
have been often very moderate. From the mode in which
quartz crystals are sometimes bent, and also from the fact
that in a case where the fissure in a broken mass of crystal-
line quartz in a Cornish vein has been filled up with tourma-
line, crystals of this mineral having penetrated the substance
of the quartz, the author ventures the supposition that the
quartz preserved for a time a soft and somewhat plastic con-
dition. From the irregular contraction of such silicious
masses after the solidification of the base it is suggested

cxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

that the stone-filled cavities in the quartz of rocks like elvan
may have originated. Phillips lias further described in this
connection the deposits from a solfatara in California, where
a fissure, alternately filled with hot water and with vapors,
has uj^on its walls crystalline quartz overlaid by chalce-
dony and by a gelatinous silica, which dries to a mass like
chalcedony, and incloses a considerable portion of cinnabar.
This quartz, which is supposed to be formed by the crystal-
lization of the opaline silica, holds fluid-cavities with bub-
bles of varying size, as well as gas and vapor-cavities.

In this connection the observations of Daubree are impor-
tant. The old Roman baths of Bourbonne-les-Bains, in the
department of the Haute Marne, in France, having been late-
ly opened for repairs, there was found in the mud at the
bottom of the well a very large number of medals, statuettes,
and ornaments in bronze, silver, and gold, ofl'erings in ancient
times to the genius of the place. Beneath there was a layer
of fragments of sandstone cemented together by crystalline
minerals, which were also found incrusting some of the med-
als. Among these were the various sulphuretted ores of
copper, chalcosine, covelline, phillipsite, chalcopyrite, and an-
timonial tetrahedrite all distinctly crystallized ; together
with crystals of quartz supposed to be contemporaneous in
origin with the sulphurets. A piece of lead was incrusted
with cubical cleavable galena and anglesite, and in other
parts of the deposit pyrite and crystals of calcite and cha-
bazite were met with, as in the well-known similar cases of
the thermal springs of Plombieres and Luxeuil. The waters
of Bourbonne, which rise through mesozoic strata, are strong-
ly saline, and contain alkaline and earthy sulphates and
chlorids. Their temperature is about 60 Centigrade ; and it
is clear that it is the action of these waters on the metals
during many centuries which has generated these crystalline
compounds, which present all the mineralogical characters of
the same mineral species fouud in the veins of Cornwall and
elsewhere.

J. D. Dana has described the curious associations of miner-
als at the Tilly Foster iron-mine in Putnam County, N". Y.
The rocks are here hornblendic gneisses of Laurentian age,
including beds of magnetite mingled with chondrodite,
which is sometimes predominant. It is often associated

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cxiii

with and penetrated by serpentine, and is accompanied by
hornblende, enstatite, and chlorite. Veins and fissures cutting
these ore-bearing strata are filled with a great variety of
crystalline minerals, including those already named and
many more. Among these is a mosaic of dolomite and ser-
pentine, both in cubic forms, copied from some undetermined
species. These imitated forms are at first described by
Dana as pseudomorphous from alteration, but subsequently
in the same paper as results of " substitution, and not of al-
teration;" the latter view being doubtless the correct one,
though the precise mode of their formation is still obscure.
Besides these, the vein-stones present a great variety of other
interesting examples of substitution or replacement of con-
temporaneous crystallization and envelopment, which are
often vaguely included under the name of pseudomorphs.
The phenomena to be observed in vein-stones, where minerals
have been successively formed in fissures which have been
through long periods channels for the circulation of watery
solutions of varying composition, alternately depositing crys-
tals, incrusting them, dissolving them, and again depositing
others, are exceedingly complicated; but it should be remem-
bered that these various reactions are from the nature of
things inapplicable to the solid masses of previously formed
rocks.

The examinations of the deposits from deep-sea soundings
have much geological interest. It appears from the obser-
vations made on board the Challenger that the deposit over
great areas is a nearly pure calcareous ooze, chiefly made up
of the shells of globigerina. Below 2000 fathoms, however,
the calcareous matter diminishes in amount, and at 2600
fathoms disappears, a fine red clay, with silicious tests of dia-
toms and radiolarians, taking its place; while at still greater
depths the proportion of clay diminishes, until at length the
ooze consists chiefly of the remains of these silicious organ-
isms, which are probably more abundant at great depths,
while the foraminifera belong to shallower waters. The ab-
sence alike of these organisms and of their remains in deep
waters is ascribed to the solvent action of the waters, aug-
mented by pressure, and holding in solution carbonic acid,
and the red clay is regarded as the insoluble residue from
the globigerina ooze. It is described as a silicate of alumina

cxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

and iron-oxyd, and is supposed, to be related to the coloring
matter of the red chalk of England, which is a silicate in which
the iron often greatly predominates over the alumina, and, as
Church has suggested, is probably a partially decomposed
greensand, or glauconite, which in various parts of the sea-
bottom is found, as in older formations, filling the cells of fora-
minifera, or appearing as casts of these from which the calca-
reous shells have been removed. The red soil which overlies
the white coral-sand of Bermuda is in like manner a silicate
containing more iron-oxyd than alumina, and is very unlike
a true clay in composition. Whatever may have been the
agencies by which the silica, iron, and alumina have been
brought together to form the glauconite which after the
death of the foraminifer replaces its sarcode, there is no
apparent basis for the notion of the organic origin of clays,
which has been suggested in this connection. The red clays
from great depths contain more or less oxyd of manganese,
which sometimes forms concretionary masses several inches
in diametef, or coats with a mammillated layer pebbles and
bits of pumice-stone in the red ooze. It has been suggested
that this may have been accumulated through the agency of
alga?, the ashes of some of which contain as much as four
hundredths of manganese. The oceanic circulation, which,
by carrying to the depths of the sea cold and aerated wa-
ters, makes possible these varied conditions of deposition,
is, as Carpenter has shown, excluded from basins which, like
the Mediterranean Sea, are cut off by submerged barriers
from the flow of the polar waters ; and hence the deposits
at comparatively moderate depths are there almost destitute
of organic remains. The bearing of all these facts upon the
rock-formations of past ages is obvious.

GEOGRAPHY.

The progress in Geography during 1875 has not been
marked by any very striking discovery, although a reasona-
ble average in the way of the extension of our knowledge
has been maintained.

The following may be considered as among the more im-
portant points in the history of the year :

Geodesy, Navigation, and Hydrography. An International
Geodetical Congress was held on the 20th of September in

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cxv

Paris, with General Haner, the delegate for Spain, as presi-
dent. The German, Russian, and Austrian empires, together
with Italy, Belgium, Roumania, Switzerland, and several
German states, were represented. No delegate was present
for Great Britain nor for the United States.

The much-vexed question of the difference in level between
the Caspian Sea and Lake Aral has finally been settled by
the Russian Commission, which ascertained that the mean
height of the latter above the former is 242.77 feet, and
157 feet above the Black Sea. Heretofore the height of the
Aral above the Black Sea was supposed not to exceed 27
feet.

The United States Hydrographic Office has published quite
a number of important papers ; among these may be men-
tioned the works of Lieutenant Gorringe on the Rio de la
Plata, and that of Commander George Dewey on the coast
of Lower California and Western Mexico, being the report of
the recent cruise of the Narragansett in that region. Im-
portant information is given here in regard to various points
on the coast, including the comparatively little-known Revil-
lagigedo Islands to the south of Lower California, of which
Socorro is the type. A report has been made by Lieutenant
George F. Totten upon the northwest coast of Spain, and
the coast of Portugal from Estaca to Cape Trafalgar. There
has also been printed a report upon the soundings of the
Tuscarora in the North Pacific Ocean.

The Ocean and its Depths. The public attention is still di-
rected toward the movements of the British surveying-ship
Challenger, of which so frequent mention has been made
in the Annual Record. It is probable, however, that her
history will soon be closed, as she is expected to return to
Great Britain in the spring of 1876. So far she has carried
out fully the programme upon which she started several
years ago, with the exception, perhaps, of the omission of a
portion of the work assigned in the Aleutian Islands and on
the northwest coast of America.

Taking up her history at the point to which we brought
it in the last Record, she left Port Nicholson on the 7th of
July, 1874, and proceeded under sail along the east coast of
New Zealand, and thence to .the Ivermadec Islands. She
reached Tongataboo on the 19th, from which she proceeded

cxvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

to the Fijis, where considerable time was spent in detailed
explorations.

Leaving Kandaru on the 10th of August, the Challenger
proceeded to Api, one of the New Hebrides, and thence to
Paine Island, near the entrance to Torres Strait, a distance
of about 1400 miles. After this she went to Aru by way
of Port Albany and Cape York and then to the Ke group,
and on to Amboyna, which was reached on the 4th of Octo-
ber.

From Amboyna the party proceeded to Ternate, and
thence across the Molucca Passage into the Celebes Sea, and
by way of the Sulu Sea to Manilla, where they arrived on the
4th of November. The vessel proceeded to Hong Kong, ar-
riving November 16, from which point the collections made
were forwarded to England.

Among the more important zoological results of this sec-
tion of the cruise was the capture of a living pearly nautilus,
which was kept for some time for the purpose of studying
its movements and attitudes. After leaving the Ke Islands
some fine specimens of undescribed species of pentacrinus
were collected.

At Hong Kong Captain Nares, who had been in command
of the vessel from the first, left, and proceeded to England
to take charge of the preparations for the British Arctic Ex-
pedition ; and the command of the vessel w r as assumed by
Captain Frank T. Thomson, who left Hong Kong on the 6th
of January, and reached Manilla on the 11th. Starting from
Zebu on the 14th, soundings were taken, and on arrival there
magnetic, tidal, and other observations made. From Zebu
a run was made to the volcanic island of Camiguin, for the
purpose of obtaining the depth of water and bottom temper-
ature close under the volcano. Proceeding thence, after va-
rious stoppages, the vessel reached Humboldt Bay, on the
coast of New Guinea, by the 23d of February. Here, how-
ever, the menacing attitude of the natives prevented landing
and conducting further operations. Admiralty Island and
Nares Harbor were reached on the evening of the 3d of March,
and, the natives being friendly, a survey was commenced the
next morning. Finding it impossible to reach Hogolu, in
the Caroline Islands, or Guam, in the Ladrones, the steamer
proceeded directly to Yokohama, from which place, arriving

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cxvii

April 11, the report has been forwarded. The deepest water
obtained during the cruise was found on the 23d of March,
in latitude 11 24' north, longitude 143 16' east, amounting
to 4475 fathoms.

A sub-report, by Commander Tizard, has reference to the
temperatures of the China, Sulu, Celebes, and Banda seas. It
is remarked that the temperatures in the seas of the Indian
Archipelago show that they have deep basins, cut off' from
the general oceanic circulation by ridges connecting the isl-
ands which surround them, and that after reaching a certain
depth, representing the height of the ridge in question, the
temperature remains the same to the bottom, and is of course
much higher than would prevail at the same bottom-depth
were it entirely open to the general circulation of the sea.

Since that date no information has been received in the
United States in regard to the movements of the Challenger,
beyond the telegraphic announcement of her arrival at Val-
paraiso on the 19th of November.

The Norwegian Legislature has, it is said, voted the sum
of $24,000 for the purpose of prosecuting deep-sea investiga-
tions between Iceland, Spitzbergen, the Faroe Islands, and
Jan-Mayen Island, the operations to be based upon the model
of those of the Challenger.

The United States steamer the Swatara, which w T as detailed
for service in the American Transit of Venus Expedition, and
of which mention was made in the Record for 1874, left Ho-
bart Town on the 17th of February, 1875, and reached Mel-
bourne on the 19th. On the 1st of March the homeward voy-
age was entered upon. Tierra del Fuego was sighted on the
3d of April, and the equator crossed on the 6th of May, in longi-
tude 38. A short stop was made at Barbadoes on the 16th
of May, just eleven weeks from Melbourne, for the purpose
of securing a supply of water, and on the 20th she left for
New York, where she arrived on the 31st of May, or one year
after she had left that city in 1875. She brought back a large
number of collections of natural history, gathered in Ker-
guelen Island, in Tasmania, in Australia, and at Chatham
Island, by officers and members of the expedition, prominent
among which were Dr. J. G. Kidder and Dr. Kershner, sur-
geons of the Sicatara, Mr. J. B. Russell and Mr. Smith of the
Coast Survey.

cxviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

The publication of the report of the operations of the
United States steamer Tuscarora has already been referred
to ; and Dr. Carpenter, in discussing her observations made
in the deep seas between the United States and Japan, infers
the general want of that sub-surface stratum of above 40
Fahr. which in the North Atlantic, with the same or yet
higher parallels, has a thickness of at least 500 fathoms. The
true cause of this peculiarity is that the North Pacific de-
rives its deep stratum of glacial water, which nearly fills its
basin, from the polar area of the opposite hemisphere, the in-
let at Behring Strait being too narrow and too shallow to
admit a flow of water of any appreciable importance. This
northward flow of the water from the equator must have, as
its complement, a movement of the superficial stratum from
the northernmost limit of this flow toward the equator, and
thence toward the southern pole. The glacial current when
it reaches the North Pacific comes nearer the surface than it
does in the Southern Ocean, even in the higher latitudes ;
and this, modifying still further the reflex surface flow to-
ward the equator, appears to account for the well-known
moderation of the climate of the Sandwich Islands, though
they lie within the Tropic of Cancer.

The /Shearwater, a British vessel, completed in 1875 a four
years' course of surveying service, having been put in com-
mission on the 20th of July, 1871, and returned to Sheerness
on the 23d of July, 1875. She was originally commanded
by Captain Nares, who, when transferred to the Challenger,
was succeeded by Captain W. J. L. Wharton. While on
her original duty in the Mediterranean she was employed
for a time in prosecuting certain important physical inves-
tigations, under Dr. Carpenter, and after two years' service
there she was sent to Zanzibar to survey that island and
the opposite coast. In February, 1874, the vessel proceeded
to the Cape of Good Hope, and left Cape Town July 14,
with the Rodriguez transit party, remaining for some time
at Rodriguez on specific service. She then transported the
transit party to the Mauritius, and again proceeded to Zan-
zibar to continue her work there.

According to Nature, during the four years she has been
in commission the vessel has surveyed in detail 790 miles of
coast-line, and made many soundings over an area of 5900
square miles.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cxix

The Arctic Regions. The principal event of the year in
connection with the exploration of the arctic regions is the
fitting out and departure of the great English expedition, of
two vessels the Alert and the Discovery under command
of Captain Nares, which left Portsmouth for the far North
on the 29th of May. For many years past the authorities
of Great Britain have been urged by her people to revive
the traditional glories of the nation in the matter of
arctic exploratiou ; but it was not until 1874 that steps
were actually taken in this direction. Once entered upon,
however, no pains were spared to render the work a success.
All the resources of science were called in to contribute su;-
gestions and information, and no contingency, it is believed,
has been left unprovided for that could be in any way an-
ticipated.

The entire expedition is under the command of Captain
Nares, of whom so frequent mention has been made in con-
nection with his command of the Challenger^ his flag-ship
being the Alert. Her commanding officer is Commander
Markham, who during the previous year had visited the
arctic regions on board of a whaling steamer, for the pur-
pose of obtaining a practical acquaintance with his new
duties.

The Discovery is commanded by Captain Henry Stephen-
son, with the usual necessary staff and subordinate officers.
While, of course, all the peculiar physical observations will
be carefully attended to, as a part of the naval routine, both
vessels have gentlemen on board competent to discharge
the duties of ethnologists and naturalists. The two vessels
were accompanied as far as Greenland by a third the Val-
orous -for the purpose of carrying stores and supplies to fill
up the other two in Greenland, and to place the remainder
of her cargo in depots on shore, for any further needs.

As stated, the fleet left Portsmouth on the 29th of May.
The first ice was seen on the 27th of June, and on the 6th
of July the Alert and Discovery anchored in the harbor of
Godhaven, at the southwest end of Disco, where the Valor-
ous had arrived two days before. Here the two exploring
vessels were occupied from the 6th to the loth in filling up
with coal and provisions from the Valorous; and on the aft-
ernoon of that day they proceeded on their journey, stopping

CXX GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

by the way to procure tlogs, of which twenty-four were taken
on board at Godhaven and twenty more at Ritenbeck.

On the 17th the Alert and Discovery left Ritenbeck, and
the Valorous started on her voyage homeward.

On the 19th of July the two former vessels reached the
little Danish settlement of Proven, where Esquimau Hans,
well known in connection with the Polaris expedition, was
engaged. Fortunately for the expedition, he consented to
go without his wife and children, thus relieving it from a
very considerable burden. Here, also, some additional dogs
were procured, bringing the total number up to sixty-one.

Information was here obtained in regard to the condition
of the ice, and it was learned that the whalers had not been
able to get through Melville Bay at first, but that they man-
aged to accomplish this on a second attempt in the second
week of June.

Leaving Proven on the 21st of July, they reached ITperna-
vik on the 22d, and, after remaining only two hours, sailed
at 8 A.M. of the same day. These are the latest advices
received from the expedition, which is now doubtless in
comfortable winter-quarters, engaged in prosecuting the re-
searches assigned to it.

The Pandora, under command of Captain Young, which
sailed in the spring for the purpose of making additional
discoveries in regard to the northwest passage, and partic-
ularly to obtain further relics of Sir John Franklin, returned
to England on the 16th of October, without having accom-
plished her mission. She expects, however, to start out
again in the coming spring.

Disco was reached on the Yth of August, and Upernavik
on the 13th, and Cape York on the 16th. The vessel called
at the Carey Islands and deposited letters for the Alert and
Discovery, and thence proceeded up Lancaster Sound to
Beechey Island, which was reached on the 26th. Here
Northumberland House, which was built as a storehouse by
the North Star in 1850, was inspected, and it was found
that it had been broken open by bears and many of the
stores damaged, except those in casks and barrels. The two
life-boats and the yacht Mary, left by Sir John Ross, were
found in perfect condition.

After putting the depot in order, Captain Young proceed-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cxxi

ed up Peel Strait for the purpose of reaching King Will-
iam Land, getting as far as La Roquette Island, near Bellot
Strait, on the 30th of August. Here an impenetrable pack
of ice across the channel barred all further progress, and,
after vainly trying to find a passage, Captain Young pru-
dently determined to retreat, which he did on the 3d of
September, and, as stated, the Pandora reached home on
the 16th of October.

In point of actual results in arctic research during the
year, the expedition of the Proven, under command of Pro-
fessor NordenskjOld, has been the most successful, problems
having been solved which have baffled inquiry for hundreds
of years, and a rich harvest of physical and biological results
secured. The Proven, on which the party embarked, left
Tromso on the 8th of June, 1875, but was compelled to lie
at anchor five days on account of a head-wind. Finally it
got under way, and passed North Cape on the 17th, to the
southern part of Nova Zembla, where anchor was cast in a
bay north of Goose Cape. During the voyage numerous de-
terminations of temperature and soundings were taken, and
many collections made, promising many new objects to the
naturalist.

From Nova Zembla the Proven proceeded to the Sea
of Kara, and on the 26th of July anchored off "Waigat Isl-
and. It was not until the 30th that a boat could land on
the island, on account of a storm. Here many rare silurian
fossils were gathered, very similar to those of Gotland.
The party met some of the Samoyedes, who had collected
to see the vessel.

On the 2d of August the Sea of Kara was reached, and
found to be completely free of ice ; but, in consequence of
the baffling winds, progress toward the middle of the penin-
sula, called by the natives Jalmal, which separates the Sea
of Kara from the Bay of Obi, was very slow. This delay,
however, was utilized in making many collections of ani-
mals, among which were several new species. The water
at the surface, in consequence of the large rivers emptying
in the vicinity, proved to be nearly free from salt, forming a
deadly poison for the animals which live in the salt-water
at the bottom. Most of these when brought up from the
bottom died when placed in water from the surface.

G

cxxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

An important series of experiments was made with the
Negretti-Zambra and Casella deep-sea self-registering ther-
mometers, showing that in the Sea of Kara, as well as off
the coast of Nova Zembla, the temperature of the sea-water
at the surface is very variable, and dependent upon the
temperature of the air, upon the neighborhood of ice, and
upon the influx of warm fresh-water from the Obi and Yen-
isei, but that at the depth of ten fathoms the temperature is
nearly or quite constant (between 1 and 2 C). If in the
northern part of the Sea of Kara, where the water on the
surface is almost completely free of salt, and at this time of
the year very warm, a flask filled with water from the sur-
face is sunk to a depth of ten fathoms, the water becomes
frozen. There are thus no warm-water ocean currents here
at any considerable depth below the surface. It is believed
that the percentage of salt at the bottom is very constant.

On the 8th of August the party landed for a few hours on
the northwestern side of Jalmal, where an astronomical de-
termination of the position of the place was made. Traces
of men and of Samoyede sledges were visible on the beach.
Close to the shore was found a sacrificial altar, consisting of
about fifty skulls and bones of the polar bear, walrus, and
reindeer. In the middle of this heap of bones were two
rude idols, hewn from drift-wood roots, newly besmeared in
the eyes and mouth with blood ; also two poles provided
with hooks, from which hungr bones of the reindeer and bear.
Close by was a fireplace and a heap of reindeer bones, the
latter clearly the remnant of a sacrificial meal.

After a stay of a few hours, the party set sail for the
north, until farther advance was prevented by impassable
masses of great even ice-fields at 75 30' north latitude,
and 79 30' east longitude. Following the edge of the ice
eastward, they finally reached the north side of the mouth
of the river Yenisei on the 15th, and they had now attained
the goal which great seafaring nations had striven in vain
for centuries to reach.

Here the vessel remained engaged in various occupations
until August 19, when she proceeded to the northern part
of Nova Zembla, and on the 23d of August reached 75 24'
north latitude and G6 24' east longitude a little south of
Cape Middendorff, on the northeast coast of Nova Zembla.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cxxiii

This was the result of a very strong northwesterly current
from the Obi and Yenisei out over the Kara Sea.

At Cape Middendorf ice was met with, extending as far
as the eye could reach, and the expedition was becalmed for
six days, during which time very rich results were obtained
by means of the dredge and trawl. Animal life was found
to be very abundant and varied ; enormous numbers of ra-
diates, crustaceans, and mollusks were taken in a short time.
On the 29th anchor was cast in Udde Bay, where marine
vegetation was found to be very abundant, contrasting
strongly with the scanty land flora.

On the 3d of September the Proven sailed into the mouth
of Matotschkin Strait, where the party remained until the
11th of the month, and thence proceeded homeward, experi-
encing exceedingly tempestuous weather, and arriving at
Tromso October 3d. The vessel sailed over six thousand
miles, and visited regions which expeditions for more than
three hundred years had vainly attempted to reach, making
rich collections in all departments of natural history.

In the mean time Professor Nordenskjold left the steamer
at Port Dixon, and proceeded up the Yenisei in a boat, ac-
companied by five men, making a very interesting explora-
tion of the river. At the last advices the Professor had
reached St. Petersburg (November 27), on his homeward jour-
ney, where he was received with the utmost hospitality by
the scientific men of the capital. His return to Stockholm
has not yet been announced.

In further reference to this subject of arctic discovery, it
is stated that Captain Gundersen, recently returned from a
voyage to Nova Zembla, found there the journal ofBarent,
giving an account of his doings from the 1st of June to the
29th of August, 1580.

North America. For several years past, as shown by the
successive volumes of the Annual Record, a large part of the
activity in exploration in North America has been due to the
labors of three government parties ; two of them, those of
Professor F. V. Hayden and Major J. W. Powell, acting un-
der the Interior Department, and the third, that of Lieuten-
ant George M. Wheeler under the Engineer Bureau of the
War Department. The operations of these parties have
generally been conducted on a very large scale, provided

cxxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

with the necessary personnel and apparatus for prosecuting
researches in geodesy, topography, geology, as well as nat-
ural history and ethnology, resulting not only in the accu-
mulation of a large mass of facts, but of many interesting
and important specimens as well. The former have been
promptly worked up into annual reports of progress, and the
latter deposited in the National Museum, in accordance with
the act of Congress to that effect, where they occupy a very
conspicuous place.

Detailed reports of the labors for the year of these several
parties, as furnished by the officers in charge, will be found
in the body of the present work, rendering it unnecessary to
say any thing further here upon the subject. The final re-
ports of these expeditions, however, deserve further mention.
These will be, for the most part, in quarto, and the series for
each will embrace about six volumes, some of which are al-
ready published. Of Professor Hayden's survey there have
already appeared : " The Acrididce of North America," by
Professor Cyrus Thomas ; " The Extinct Vertebrata of the
West," by Dr. Joseph Leidy; "The Cretaceous Flora of the
West," by Professor Leo Lesquereux ; and " The Cretaceous
Vertebrata of the West," by Professor E. D. Cope, the last
mentioned having been published in 1875. Several volumes
of Lieutenant Wheeler's series are in press, and will be pub-
lished in the course of 1876. The first volume of Major Pow-
ell's report, that on his exploration of the Colorado River
in 1869-72, appeared during 1875.

Apart from the labors of the three great expeditions there
have been less than usual of miscellaneous explorations in the
United States in 1875. In this connection, however, we may
mention the labors of the United States Fish Commission at
Wood's Hole, Mass. A party, composed as usual of several
scientific specialists, established itself at that station, where,
with the assistance of the apparatus of the Commission and
of the United States steamer Blue Light^ furnished for its
use by the Navy Department, and under command of Cap-
tain L. A. Beardslee, a large amount of scientific work was
accomplished, including a thorough exploration of the shores
of Nantucket, Martha's Vineyard, and the south side of Cape
Cod for a considerable distance, as well as of the intervening
waters.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cxxv

Among the gentlemen present were Professor A. E. Ver-
rill, S. J. Smith, and S. F. Clarke, of Yale College ; Dr. Will-
iam G. Farlow, of Cambridge ; Professor A. Hyatt, of Bos-
ton ; Professor Theodore Gill, Mr. G. Brown Goode, and Mr.
*T. H. Beau, of the Smithsonian Institution ; Professor Sander-
son Smith, of New York ; and Dr. J. G. Kidder, surgeon of
the Blue Light, and numerous occasional visitors of distinc-
tion. The collections were very large, embracing a full rep-
resentation of "the marine life of the region referred to.

A large part of the work of the Commission was devoted
to obtaining illustrations of the fisheries of Massachusetts,
for exhibition at the International Exposition, including the
work of securing photographs, colored sketches, and plaster
casts of the cetaceans and fishes generally, either originals or
models of the various forms of fishing-craft and of the appa-
ratus used in the fishery business.

Although not coming under the head of geographical ex-
plorations, it may be proper to make special mention of sun-
dry ethnological researches, connected with the preparations
for the International Exposition, and conducted, for the most
part, under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution and
of the Indian Bureau. The first of these to be mentioned is
the work of Mr. Paul Schumacher on the islands and main-
lands in the vicinity of Santa Barbara, where, with a party of
several assistants, he was engaged for several months in
making explorations of the graves of the aboriginal inhab-
itants.

A party, detailed by Lieutenant Wheeler, under Dr. H. C.
Yarrow, was also engaged simultaneously, in the same region,
for the same object.

After the labors of Mr. Schumacher in the Santa Barbara
region were brought to an end, the work was taken up by
Rev. Stephen Bowers, and from the three parties an enormous
aggregate of interesting objects, and of remarkable variety
and beauty, were sent to Washington the whole reaching a
weight of over fifteen tons, composed principally of objects
of stone, in the form of mortars, pestles, bowls, plates, etc.
Mr. Schumacher subsequently continued his researches in
Oregon with satisfactory results.

Mr. James G. Swan, of Port Townsend, was engaged by
the Indian Bureau to prosecute researches into the ethnology

cxxvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

of the Indians of Northwestern America, for which purpose
he visited Alaska and various points on Puget Sound. Large
collections were made by him and shipped to Washington.

Mr. Stephen Powers, well known from his researches into
the Indianology of California, was also engaged by the In-
dian Bureau to make explorations in California and Nevada
in search of ethnological objects.

Major J. W. Powell, in addition to his surveying work,
made many collections, illustrating Indian life, of pre-eminent
value.

The ethnological inquiries of Dr. Edward Palmer in the
southwestern portion of the United States, especially in the
vicinity of San Diego, have furnished satisfactory returns.

In addition to these more extended and noteworthy re-
searches, numerous investigations of less importance have
been prosecuted in the Mississippi Valley and elsewhere,
yielding very gratifying results.

For the purpose of securing a proper representation at the
International Exposition of the tribes of Northern Alaska,
the services of Dr. Bessels were engaged by the Indian Bu-
reau, and the occasion of a cruise of the United States steam-
er Sardnac, in northern waters, was embraced by him, with
the permission of the Secretary of the Navy, to proceed to
the North, for the purpose of making full and exhaustive col-
lections. Unfortunately, the Saranac was wrecked not far
from Victoria and totally lost, thus putting a summary end
to the expedition.

For further information relative to explorations in North
America in 1875, reference may be made to the chapter on
Geography in the body of this work.

There is little to be said in regard to the work of explora-
tion in Central and South America during the past year.
The Narragansett, as already mentioned, under Commander
Dewey, performed good service in the waters of Lower Cali-
fornia and the west coast of Mexico, the results of which
have been published in the form of a report.

The labors of Professor Gabb in Costa Rica have been
brought to a close, and that srentleman is now en^asfed in
working up his collections and notes, with a view to an ex-
haustive report, interrupted for a time by a visit to San Do-
mingo. The extent of his collections in general natural his-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cxxvii

tory and zoology has seldom been equaled, and we may
safely say that, so far as the vertebrates are concerned, the
zoology of Costa Rica is almost as well known as that of
the United States. His work in reference to the ethnology
of the tribes has also been extremely important. A full se-
ries of his collections, biological and ethnological, has been
placed by Dr. Gabb in the National Museum at Washington.

Agja, The London Geographical Magazine^ which consti-
tutes so complete and exhaustive an exponent of geograph-
ical progress, in reviewing the third edition of Colonel Wal-
ker's map of Turkistan, takes occasion to give a statement of
our knowledge of the progress of geography in Central Asia
within the last two years. It remarks that the work of the
mission to Kashgaria, under Sir Douglas Forsyth, is especial-
ly full of important results, among which are enumerated the
correct fixing of the position of certain important towns by
astronomical observations, and the survey of about three
thousand miles of route lines. The longitude of Kashgar
was established at 76 6' 47" east of Greenwich.

Numerous changes of the previous geography in Central
Asia, also, resulted from the labors of the Havildar employed
on the great trigonometrical survey of the region of the
Oxus, with the aid of a Mollah, an assistant of the Havildar.

Another exploration, the materials of which are made use
of in Colonel Walker's map, is that in Great Thibet, by the
Pandit who was connected with the expedition of Major
Montgomerie.

The same journal also furnishes an account of the Olena
expedition of the Russian Geographical Society, which left
Irkutsk, under the direction of Cherandoski and Miiller, in
1873, for the purpose of penetrating to the sources of the
Olena River, and thence to the shores of the Arctic Ocean.
This was carried on with varying success, and on the 1st of
November, 1874, the travelers reached the mouth of the Ole-
na, having thus completed the first part of the enterprise.

No very recent information has been published in regard
to the operations of the present year, but it was expected
that the basins of the Anabara and Khatanga would be in-
vestigated.

This expedition has added a great deal to the knowledge
of the geography of Siberia, and the magnetical observations

cxxviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

have developed the important fact that the Siberian pole of
greatest intensity is between latitude 64 and 65 north and
in about longitude 112 east, and just about 1 west and
south of the position assigned to it by Gauss. The minimum
temperature observed during the expedition was 49, in lat-
itude 61 30' north; the absolute maximum was 82.36, on
the 1st of June, in latitude 66 26'. The expedition crossed
the polar limits of several trees. The silver-poplar first dis-
appeared, then the silver-fir, in latitude 60 50'. The birch
was found as far north as latitude 63 only.

Details in reference to the geographical discoveries in
Northern Asia will be found in the account of Professor
Nordenskj old's journey to the river Yenisei.

A British expedition left Rangoon in the latter part of
December, 18*74,10 re-open the old trade route between Bur-
mah and Yunan. This was in charge of Colonel Horace
Brown, accompanied by Mr. Ney Elias as topographer and
John Anderson, director of the Museum of Calcutta, as med-
ical director and naturalist. The party was accompanied
by an escort of soldiers, and provided with Chinese inter-
preters and a guard. We learn, however, that after the ex-
pedition had reached the borders of China it was attacked
by fanatical natives and entirely broken up, so that noth-
ing was accomplished.

. Nothing definite has been received in the United States
in regard to the expedition to Western China, under the com-
mand of Captain Sosnovsky and Captain Matvosovsky, ac-
companied by a surgeon, photographer, and interpreter.
They reached Shanghai by way of Kiachta and Pekin, and
were to leave Hankow by steamer, and afterward to pro-
ceed westerly up the river Han in native boats.

The two explorations of Palestine, the one under Ameri-
can auspices and the other under British, have been continu-
ing their work during the year with varying success. The
British party in the early part of the year engaged in the
examination of the southern portion of their field, which they
expected to finish during the summer. At that time Lieuten-
ant Condon reported that he had a list of nearly 3000 names
in Arabic, and that he had fully identified Bethabara as the
place where John was baptized. Upward of fifty fords of the
Jordan were discovered in the progress of the survey. Sub-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cxxix

sequently to that date, an attack by Arabs upon the party
resulted in its temporary disorganization and a serious inter-
ruption to its labors.

The American party has also been doing good work. Re-
inforcements were sent out, under the direction of the Ameri-
can Palestine Exploration Society, from New York, on the
1 9th of June, on board of the steamer Celtic. The party
consisted of Colonel J. C. Lane, of Brooklyn, commanding
the expedition, J. Harvey Trent, of Lawrence, Massachusetts,
and Professor Selah Merrill, of Andover. They were to be
joined in Europe by Mr. Rudolph Meyer, who has preceded
the party to make some preliminary arrangements. They
took out a large supply of engineering instruments of Amer-
ican make, and will remain two years in Palestine, the ex-
penses being guaranteed by the friends of the society.

Africa. The interest in the exploration of this part of the
world centres mainly around the labors of Mr. H. M. Stanley
and of Lieutenant Cameron. It will be remembered that
after his successful search for Dr. Livingstone, Mr. Stanley
returned to the United States, and subsequently undertook
a second exploration of the interior of Africa under the joint
auspices of the London Daily Telegraph and the New York
Herald. Starting in at Zanzibar in 1873, Mr. Stanley reached
the Victoria Nyanza in 103 days, after a march of 720 miles,
having experienced great hardships on the route, and the loss
by disease and fighting with the natives of more than half
his party. In further detail of this trip it is to be mentioned
that at the village of Muhalala, in the district of Usandawi,
the guides whom he had engaged at Ugogo deserted and
left him in the wilderness. The march thence was an ex-
tremely trying one, and six of his men died ; and when he at
last reached Uveriveri the whole of his men were exhausted
by hunger and fatigue. Failing to obtain sufficient supplies
at this point, Stanley sent twenty of his party to Suna for
a supply of grain. They succeeded in their mission ; but
during their absence two more men died.

On the 21st of January Stanley reached the village of
Vinyata, in the district of Iturn, and in the valley of the
Liwumba River, which he considers the most' southerly
source of the Nile known. It flows toward the west, and
where he reached it there were numerous villages surrounded

G*

cxxx GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

by plantations, having a population of from two to three
thousand souls. After a time the inhabitants were induced
to supply provisions ; but the sight of Stanley's stores led
to an attack on his camp, which was repulsed with a loss of
fifteen on the part of the enemy. A second attack w T as also
repulsed, when Stanley sent out four parties with orders to
destroy the villages and to seize the cattle. He lost at this
time twenty-one men, and on the 23d he left with a stock of
provisions for six days.

On the 28th he reached Mgongo Membo, in Iramba, where
he found that out of the 314 men with whom he left the
coast only 194 remained. Proceeding farther toward the
lake, and penetrating through the jungle bounding the west-
ern side of the basin of what is apparently an arm of the
Nyanza, Stanley entered Usukuma, which he describes as a
densely populated country, abounding in cattle, and finally
reached the Nyanza on the 27th of February, 1875, at Ka-
gehyi, one of the principal ports resorted to by slave-dealers,
in the district of Uchambi. Here his force numbered only
three Europeans and 166 natives. A careful discussion of
the temperature of the boiling point indicated an altitude
of 3808 feet, the aneroid giving 3550 to 3675 feet.

At Kagehyi Mr. Stanley launched a light boat which he
had carried in pieces from the coast, and embarking on the
8th of March, with a picked crew, he circumnavigated the
lake in 57 days. He found the physical aspect of the shores
to vary considerably, in places being quite high, and again
composed of marshy plains. The island of Ukerewe, per-
haps the largest in the lake, was found to abound in cattle
and ivory. As his circumnavigation continued, numerous
encounters took place with the natives, in all of which Stan-
ley was victorious.

At Beyal Island Stanley was welcomed by a fleet of ca-
noes, sent by King M'tesa, of whom he speaks in the highest
terms. The king and his officers now profess Islamism, and
dress in Arab costume ; but he is, nevertheless, said to be
anxious to receive Christian missionaries. The daily butch-
ery of men and women has been stopped entirely. On this
expedition* Mr. Stanley had the good fortune to meet M. Li-
nant de Bellefonds, one of Colonel Gordon's officers, to whom
he intrusted a letter. This young officer, with thirty-six of

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cxxxi

his followers, was massacred by the Bari on his return to the
north, and Stanley's letter was flung aside, but was afterward
found by a detachment sent out by Colonel Gordon.

On the 17th of April Stanley left Murchison Bay, on his
return to the south, and was accompanied by an escort as
far as the Kotonga River. Leaving this river on the 20th
of April, he returned to Kagehyi on the 5th of May, where
he found that Frederick Baker, one of his European servants,
had died on the 23d of April.

The area of Lake Nyanza is set down as 25,300 square
miles. It is stated by the Geographical Magazine that Stan-
ley's observations and those of Speke agree very closely,
the difference in the estimates of the two explorers being
very slight.

The result of the labors of Lieutenant Cameron is, if any
thing, found to be more important than that of Stanley, as
being through a less-known region, and solving a still great-
er geographical problem. This officer of the British service
left the eastern coast, near Zanzibar, on the 24th of March,
1873, reached Ujiji on the 21st of February, 1874, left for the
west coast on the 18th of May, 1874, and arrived at Loanda
in November last. It appears that he was not able to follow
the Congo on leaving Lake Tanganyika, but was obliged to
take a more southerly course ; but allows the inference that
the lake is really the head of the Congo River, as recently
maintained.

Nothing very definite appears to have been received from
the expedition of Colonel Gordon, which had for its object,
in part, the exploration of Lake Nyanza. No later advices
have come to our knowledge than that of the arrival of Lieu-
tenants Watson and others of his party at Gondokoro on the
8th of December, 1874. From that point they were to pro-
ceed to the exploration of the Nyanza in a boat previously
prepared at a station near the falls that obstruct navigation
between Gondokoro and the lake.

The official reports of the exploration of the Ogowai River
by Messrs. Compiegne and Marche have been published by
the Geographical Society of Paris. The London journals,
however, do not consider the results of their labors as add-
ing very materially to geographical discovery.

Some months ago it was stated that an expedition was

cxxxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

shortly to leave England for the purpose of making a survey
of the coast of Africa opposite the Canary Islands, with a
view of finding a suitable position for a harbor and a com-
mercial and missionary station ; to enter into commercial
arrangements with the native tribes ; to inquire into their
present means of commerce and the resources of the coun-
tries through which it is proposed to pass. It was proposed
also to examine as far as practicable the sand-bar across the
mouth of the River Belta, which is supposed to keep the
waters of the Atlantic Ocean from flowing into the dry bed
of the ancient inland sea ; and also to obtain levels and
other necessary information.

Mr. M'Kenzie, whose name has been previously mentioned
in connection with the project of converting the interior of
Northern Africa into an inland sea, from the west coast
rather than the north, is director of the party.

Australia and Polynesia. The most interesting advance in
our knowledge of the resjion embraced within this district is
that which relates to New Guinea, several expeditions hav-
ing been engaged in exploring the accessible portions of the
coast. In May last the bark Chevert was fitted out by Mr.
William Macleay for the purpose of geographical and bio-
logical exploration ; and, accompanied by a picked crew of
twenty men, a physician, and four zoological and three bo-
tanical collectors, and provided with a steam-launch, he left
on the 18th of that month. Their route was by way of
Percy, Palm, Brookes, and Cape York Islands ; and at the end
of six weeks the Chevert dropped anchor oft* the mouth of
the Katow River, close to the New Guinea village called
Mobato. The steam-launch was then fitted out for an ex-
ploration up the Katow, which at its mouth is 200 yards
wide. It was, however, impossible to proceed very high up,
in consequence of the obstruction from the trees. Return-
ing, and finding a second attempt impracticable, sail was
made for Darnley Island, where some time was occupied in
killing the large pigeons of Torres Strait. They then pro-
ceeded to Hall's Sound, on the east side of the Papuan Gulf,
and anchored off Yule Island, where they found an Italian
naturalist, D'Albertis, who has been engaged for so many
years in the exploration of the northern coast of New Guinea.
From this point the Chevert proceeded to Somerset Island

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cxxxiii

to await news from Sydney ; but after a time, in consequence
of some misunderstanding between the captain and the party
on board the vessel, returned to Australia, without having
accomplished the objects for which it started out.

About the same time the missionary steamer Ellangowan,
having on board the Rev. Mr. Macfarlane, of the Straits
Mission, accompanied by a naturalist, left Sonierset for the
southwest coast of New Guinea, and on the 1st of September
reached the mouth of a large river, hitherto unknown, and
which they called Baxter River, being one of the finest in New
Guinea. Its mouth was one and a half miles wide, and the
depth nine to twelve fathoms. The position is said to be 9 8'
south latitude, 142 18' east longitude. At a distance of fif-
teen miles up the river it was fully half a mile wide, and the
depth of water seven fathoms. As the vessel proceeded up-
ward the river banks became bolder, and the timber as-
sumed a formidable growth. The river still continued wide
and deep, and at intervals was fed by tributaries of such size
and appearance as to render it a matter for much discussion
which stream to select. The up-river voyage extended to a
distance of ninety miles from the sea. Here they saw birds-
of-pa'radise, and killed a boa-serpent 15 -J- feet in length. A
gigantic bird, the spread of whose wings was supposed to be
15 to 16 feet, was started to flight, but could not be captured.*
The tracks of enormous wild animals were observed, one of
them supposed to be a species of buffalo.

Further information in regard to Australia, Torres Strait,
the southwest of New Guinea, and the western islands of the
Luciad Archipelago, is furnished by the report of Captain
John Moresby and his companions, in the British steamer
Basilisk, which was engaged in 1873 and 1874 in surveying
these resrions.

Captain Moresby remarks that the natives of the south-

* These dimensions have probably been exaggerated, as D'Albertis has sent
home what is doubtless tbe same bird a species of eagle which, though
of great size, does not quite come up to the claims of the officers of the Ellan-
gowan. This has lately been described by Salvadori as Harpyopsis novce
guinece, closely allied to the Harpy eagles of South America, and, like them,
living on small mammals. It measures 35 inches in length : wing, 19 ; tail,
16J ; tarsus, 5| ; middle toe and claw, 3|. Annali del Mus. Civico di Ge-
nova, 1872, vii., 682.

cxxxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

west portion of New Guinea are copper-colored, about five
feet three inches in height, and with good features. The
hair of the men is worn frizzled out in a large mat, and or-
namented with feathers; that of the women is always cut
short. Both sexes go almost naked. Their weapons are
wooden spears and swords, clubs, slings, and stone V-shaped
hatchets ; but no bows and arrows are seen anions: them.

Human jaw and spinal bones are worn as bracelets and
ornaments, and the wearers appeared to wish to have it un-
derstood that they had eaten the original owners of the bones.
The houses are built, after Malay fashion, on poles raised five
or six feet from the ground, and consist of one large apart-
ment, w r ith peaked gable ends and a saddle roof. Dogs, cats,
and pigs are kept ; also tame cassowaries, birds, and a small
species of opossum bear.

Their fishing -nets are similar to an English seine, with
shell sinkers and light wood floats, and are from one to twen-
ty fathoms in length. The material is made by the women,
from the fibre of a small, nettle-like plant, and possesses the
strength of ordinary seining twine.

MICROSCOPY.

I. MICROSCOPIC APPARATUS AND OBJECTIVES.

In a paper upon microscopic spectrum apparatus, by Mr.
H. C. Sorby, and published in the Monthly Microscopical
Journal, May, 1875, he proposes for the future to adopt the
plan of expressing the position of the absorption bands in
terms of wave-lengths, instead of referring to an arbitrary
scale. He states that probably it is a true general law that
when the spectrum of a substance contains a number of
well-marked absorption bands, they are related to one an-
other in a perfectly definite manner, and a far more uniform
connection exists between the wave-length of their centres
than between any other condition. When the relation be-
tween the bands in different closely connected compounds is
observed by the wave-length method, a relation is recog-
nized which would not be possible if any arbitrary scale w r ere
adopted, and this not only when the physical state is the
same, but when the substance itself is chemically modified.
In view of this relation between the spectra of compounds
known to be related in a simple manner, and which can be

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cxxxv

changed one into the other, it becomes a question of much
interest to consider whether, when we meet spectra having
similar relations, the substances may not be in some way
connected, although it may be impossible to convert one
into the other. Mr. Sorby gives several striking examples of
these equal ratios, though the actual wave-lengths are very
different, produced by different coloring matters, and which
appear to show that some simple but unknown molecular
or chemical combination really exists between them.

A self-centring turn-table, by Mr. C. F. Cox, is described in
the March number of the Monthly Microscopical Journal,
which will meet a want often felt by those who bestow any
care upon neatly mounting their preparations, and especial-
ly when cells are to be prepared for reception of opaque ob-
jects.

In the August number of the Journal of the Quekett Mi-
croscopical Club is a description of an ingenious arrangement
for cleaning very thin covers without breaking them. It con-
sists of a small tube of brass or steel, about an inch in diam-
eter, and the same in height, into which fits loosely a weight-
ed plug. To the lower end of this plug is cemented a piece
of chamois leather. Another piece of leather is stretched
upon a flat piece of wood or plate glass to form a pad, which
completes the apparatus. The tube being placed upon the
pad, the moistened thin cover is dropped into it, and the
weighted plug placed on it ; holding the tube well down on
the pad, one can rub as much as necessary without any
danger of breaking, the weight of the plug giving sufficient
pressure to clean the glass. The manipulation is quite easy,
and it is difficult to break the glass.

Mr. Wenham describes in the April number of the Monthly
Microscopical Journal a new " Method of obtaining Oblique
Vision of Surface Structure under the Highest Powers of the
Microscope." He advises the use of slips of glass about four
tenths of an inch wide, ground and polished at an angle at
one edge. The object to be examined is placed upon the
sloping plane. One of the slips is cemented to the ordinary
three-by-one-inch slide, and the other slip being slid against
it, the object will lie flat between the two inclines. It is nec-
essary to have the two inclines to remove the objectionable
color which would otherwise enter into the objective. He

cxxxvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

recommends an angle of 35 for dry and 45 for balsam-
mounted objects. These prismatic slips can be cheaply and
easily made by grinding and polishing, say, a hundred at a
time, and will no doubt be brought often into use in decid-
ing whether certain appearances in the ordinary mode of
view are or are not illusory.

In the April number of the American Naturalist is a de-
scription of a simple " spring clip" for use in mounting mi-
croscopic objects, the invention of Mr. N. N. Mason, of Prov-
idence, Rhode Island.

We learn from a contemporary that in order to facilitate
the microscopical examination of the eye in cases of disease,
M. Monoyer has contrived a modification of Siebel's ophthal-
moscope, so arranged that three persons can make simul-
taneous observations.

Dr. Golding Bird, in an article in the Quarterly Journal of
Microscopical Science, January, 1875, strongly advocates em-
bedding in elder pith for the purpose of making microscop-
ical sections. He employs for this purpose the pith of the
common elder; it is split longitudinally, and a small furrow
made with the finger-nail on the cut surfaces of each half,
somewhat corresponding in depth to the thickness of the
tissue to be cut, receives the specimen ; it is then placed in
the microtome, and put into water; in a few minutes the pith
will have swollen sufficiently to hold the specimen firmly in
its place, and the sections are made by means of a razor dip-
ped into spirit.

Wenham's Reflex Illuminator. Mr. Samuel Wells writes
as follows to the Boston Journal of Chemistry, June, 1875 :
"I find that some immersion objectives are capable of trans-
mitting the extremely oblique rays that pass through the
illuminator so as to give a bright field when used on balsam
slides. In dry mounts the light can not be transmitted be-
yond the upper surface of the slide, but in balsam-mounted
slides the light passes to the upper surface of the cover and is
there totally reflected. If an immersion objective is adjust-
ed and connected with the cover by a film of water; the total
reflection will be destroyed, and the light will pass through
the cover and water into the front of the objective. The
ultimate direction of the ray of light after passing through
the illuminator is not changed by the introduction of the

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cxxxvii

different media (balsam, glass, and water), and the angle at
which it enters the objective must therefore be greater than
41. Id examining Moller's Probe -Platte, a balsam mount,
under these conditions, with light from a kerosene hand-
lamp, I easily resolved the Amphipleura pellucida ; so clear
and decided were the lines that with a power of 8000 they
were still visible.

" The resolution of this difficult diatom, as well as the
Frustulia Saxonica and Nitzschia curvula (Nos. 18 and 19
on the Probe-Platte), far surpasses any that I have ever
seen by artificial light, and rivals the beautiful resolution
obtained by monochromatic sunlight. With this illumina-
tor it is much easier to resolve the Amphipleura in balsam
than to resolve it dry with any other artificial illumination.
The advantages of the reflex illuminator in thus furnishing
light of greater obliquity than has been obtained by other
methods seem to me worth considering by those interested
in testing the resolving power of objectives.

"It is advantageous to connect the illuminator with the
slide by glycerin, instead of water, as it does not evaporate.
The higher refractive power of glycerin makes no difference
in the ultimate direction of the light.

" With high amplification the lines of the Amphipleura
become decidedly beaded, but do not separate into dots."

We commend to the careful reading of microscopists and
microscope - makers the excellent paper of Mr. Slack, read
before the Royal Microscopical Society of London, May 5,
1875, and the discussion thereon, contained in the June num-
ber of the Monthly Microscopical Journal. The paper is
entitled, "On Angle of Aperture in Relation to Surface
Markings and Accurate Vision." Mr. Slack proves, from the
results already accomplished by Zeiss, of Jena, working un-
der the direction of Professor Abbe, that resolving power
and penetration are not in that condition of irreconcilable
hostility generally supposed, and that a new era is dawning
upon physiologists, and, indeed, all who care for something
more than the mere display of diatom dots. It is well
known that in the extravagant desire to display these dots
angular aperture has been pushed to an extreme, and a cer-
tain amount of chromatic error allowed as necessary to
sharpest definition. By very careful construction, centring,

cxxxviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

and elimination of errors, the objectives of Zeiss, e. g. } a one-
quarter inch of forty-eight degrees, and a one-sixth inch of
sixty-eight degrees, will perform work, as Mr. Slack proves,
hitherto supposed to be only within reach of the most ex-
pensive large-angle objectives. Zeiss has, so to speak, min-
imized angles of aperture, and secured great working dis-
tance and penetration, and yet obtained the amount of sep-
arating and resolving power of much larger angled object-
ives. Mr. Slack truly observes that opticians have been en-
couraged to make excessive apertures substitutes for good
corrections, and that naturalists and jmysiologists have been
too contented with feeble resolving powers, under the belief
that any more capacity for resolution must mean less pen-
etration.

Not indirectly connected with this subject of large angle
is the " Measurement of the Moller Probe-Platte," by Pro-
fessor E. "W. Morley, reported by J. E. Smith, in the same
journal. The measurements were made by means of a
Tolles one-sixteenth and a Troughton and Sims micrometer.
Professor Morley's measurements are, no doubt, pretty ac-
curate, but any one who knows any thing about diatoms
also knows that the number of stria3 in 0.01 inch, is subject
to considerable variation in the same species. In a com-
munication to the Memphis Microscopical Society, he states
as a result of his measurements of the striae of Amphipleura
pellucida that they number 92,600 to the linear inch.

The perfection of objectives is yet far from being attain-
ed, as we have now Mr. Tolles, with his new system one-
tenth surpassing the best work hitherto even with his one-
fiftieth ; and Messrs. Powell and Lealand, at a recent soiree
of the Royal Microscopical Society exhibited a one-fourth
and a one-eighth on a new formula, the first resolving Amphi-
pleura pellucida, and the other showing Pleurosigma angu-
lation x 4000, under the most difficult test of direct light,
in a remarkably magnificent manner, the beads standing out
like minute spheres. At the same meeting Messrs. Beck ex-
hibited a large microscope in solid silver, fitted with every
conceivable piece of apparatus, all in silver. This luxurious
w T ork of art, intended for an American microscopist, cost
some 500.

In the Monthly Microscopical Journal for February, 1875,

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cxxxix

is an important paper by Dr. Pigott on the invisibility of
minute bodies, subtending a sufficient visual angle to be
readily seen if properly defined. This invisibility depends
upon several causes, which are examined, and the results
given in detail ; and, first, for minute gas bubbles (vacuum
bubbles ?) in plate glass : these examined by the horizontal
microscope, placed opposite the window, give a very perfect
picture of the prospect in miniature; the field of view pre-
cisely three fifths of the diameter of the bubble, and the
marginal band one fifth the same for all objectives, tohat-
ever be the aperture. Not so with a solid spherule of the
same size and same glass, for, first, the marginal band in-
creases in breadth from nothing till it occupies the whole
spherule as the aperture is diminished ; and, second, the de-
gree of aperture at which the band first appears varies with
the refractive index of the bead. If a small spherule be
formed by melting the end of a fine glass thread, and exam-
ined under the microscope, using the plane mirror before a
window, a minute image of the window appears, surrounded
by a black annulus, which Dr. Pigott calls the " black test-
band," it will be found that for the same aperture the breadth
of the black ring is exactly in the same proportion to the di-
ameters of the spherules; the angular aperture is at once
shown by the breadth of the picture displayed within the
spherule. On increasing the aperture the picture becomes
larger and larger, until with a large aperture the ring is
attenuated exceedingly; and upon diminishing the aperture
exceedingly, the test-band widens so much that only a mi-
nute picture is left in the centre. It is evident that this
test-band has a remarkable effect upon definition. If we
are observing minute spherules in a mass, with excessive
aperture, the bands become almost invisible, the forms of
closely packed beading, if refractive and transparent, can
not be descried, and if there be brilliant illumination, the
forms under inspection are completely obliterated.

The Rev. Dr. Edwards, of St. Chad's College, Denstone,
England, proposes for the unit of linear measurement in
microscopical observations the wave - length of, say, yellow
light, or, perhaps better, of orange ; in this latter case we
would have 1,500,000 wave-lengths = 36 inches, and, in
round numbers, 1 wave-length = the 40 uoo of an English

Cxi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

inch. He states, with true English pertinacity, that though
the Committee of the British Association have from time to
time recommended the French meter for the unit, En-
glishmen will not become Frenchmen, and adopt a unit that
theoretically holds good only when measured across the ter-
ritory of the French republic.

The artificial production of silica films, with a view of
adding to our knowledge of high power definition, and pos-
sibly throwing light upon questions of crystallization and
organization, has received a new impulse in Mr. Slack's dis-
covery that the gas escaping from a heated mixture of pow-
dered glass, powdered fluor-spar, and sulphuric acid (and
which, when received into pure water, deposits the silica
suddenly and violently in amorphous particles), gives deli-
cate films with definite forms, exhibiting remarkable regu-
larity of size and arrangement when conducted through a
mixture of glycerin and water. Some of the films produce
the beautiful polychromatic effects so often noticed in beaded
diatoms and scales.

In the August number of the Monthly MicroscopicalJour-
nal is a paper by Dr. George D. Beatty, of Baltimore, re-
printed from the Cincinnati Medical JVeics, on "Double
Staining of Wood and other Vegetable Substances." The
author states that benzol fixes the anilines when used in
staining tissues, and also renders them transparent. The
double staining the spiral vessels, e. g., of leaves red, and the
other parts purple or blue, is obtained by immersing the
section for five or ten minutes in an alcoholic solution of
roseine (Magenta), and afterward in Nicholson's soluble
pure blue for thirty or ninety seconds, rarely longer, with
examination during this time to decide upon the proper in-
stant for fixation by immersing in the benzol. We com-
mend the article to those interested in this subject.

Blood. In a paper read at a late meeting of the Zoolog-
ical Society, Professor Gulliver stated that in the mammalia
the largest red corpuscles of the blood are those of the two
elephants, the two-toed sloth, and the walrus. In the human
subject the corpuscles are exceeded in size by those of only
eight or nine exotic mammalia, and not equaled in size by
the corpuscles of any British animals of the class. And this
fact, independently of its physiological interest, may prove

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cxli

important in medico-legal inquiries, since by it alone, as Dr.
Joseph G. Richardson states (and as we have already no-
ticed), he has correctly distinguished dried stains of human
blood from those of the ox and sheep.

In the September number of the Monthly Microscopical
Journal is a paper by Dr. Osier, " On the Organisms in the
Liquor Sanguinis ;" it was read at a meeting of the Koyal
Society, and has elicited considerable notice. He was not
able to trace any organic continuity with any other recog-
nized animal or vegetable form, or to show that they possessed
power of reproduction, or were at all related to Bacteria.

Dr. Joseph G. Richardson, in a paper presented to the
Royal Microscopical Society, and published in the January
number of the Journal, makes the strong statement that the
" pigment-cells," or " scales," described by Frerichs, of Ber-
lin, as occurring in blood, and the " pigmentary particles,"
or celloids, figured by Dr. Roberts, of Manchester, England,
in his treatise on " Urinary and Venal Diseases," are simply
and solely accumulations of dirt, especially the remains of
blood corpuscles, in the little excavations on slides in ordi-
nary use ! This is a strong statement, and worthy of seri-
ous consideration; but Dr. Richardson is so confident of the
truth of his assertion that he challenges any devout believer
in pigment-flakes to bring him an honest specimen of blood
or urine from any ordinary case of disease, in which can be
demonstrated either pigment - flakes, pigmentary particles,
or pigment-scales.

M. Laptschinsky, of St. Petersburg, contributes a paper to
the Centralblatt on the microscopic changes undergone by
the blood in various diseases. Where febrile symptoms are
present, the changes consist in the blood-corpuscles not run-
ning into regularly formed rouleaux, but in accumulating in
heaps or clumps, while the individual coqDiiscles frequently
appear swollen and cloudy. In the interspaces of the clumps
of red corpuscles, great numbers of white corpuscles may be
seen. Careful enumeration of the relative numbers of white
and red corpuscles, the former showing unusually active
and extensive amoeboid movements, satisfied him that in
febrile diseases, and in B right's disease, the conversion or
development of white corpuscles into red is either material-
ly retarded or entirely arrested.

cxlii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

The Microscope in Geology. A valuable paper on the mi-
croscopic rock-structure of some ancient and modern volcan-
ic rocks was lately read before the Geological Society by
Mr. J. Clifton Ward. In this paper he gives the details of
structure of some modern lavas, showing that even in such
modern lava-flows as that of the Solfatara, considerable
changes had taken place by alteration, and the replacement
of one mineral by another, and this very generally in succes-
sive layers corresponding to the crystal outlines. With re-
gard to the ancient lavas and ashes of Cumberland of lower
Silurian age, they resembled the Solfatara graystone, and
though in external structure having more of a felditic than
a basaltic appearance, in internal structure they have consid-
erable analogies with the basalts, while in chemical composi-
tion they are neither true basalts nor true felstones.

In the case of the Cumbrian ash-rocks the most intense
metamorphism had taken place ; and the author states that
neither the careful inspection of hand-specimens, nor the
microscopic examination of thin slices, would in all cases
enable truthful results to be arrived at, but that these meth-
ods and that of chemical analysis must be accompanied by
a laborious and detailed survey of the rocks in the open
country.

Botany. We notice as worthy of attention the articles now
in course of publication in the Monthly Microscopical Jour-
nal, by Thomas Taylor, microscopist of the United States De-
partment of Agriculture, " upon certain fungi parasitic on
plants." In the March number he describes the " black
knot " of cherry and plum trees, and the Oidium tuckeri
found on the vine. The latter appears to be not a true
mould, but merely a condition of Erysiphe, a true parasite
of the vine, which will not fruit when removed from the
plant on which it grows.

Hitherto no DiatomaceaB are certainly known to have been
found earlier than in tertiary deposits. The few so-called
diatoms found by Dr. White in the hornstone of the Devo-
nian are exceedingly doubtful. We should scarcely expect
silica imbedded in silica to be very visible. Very recently
Count F. Cartracane, a well-known microscopist, states, in
the JVaturforscher, that he has proved the existence of Dia-
tomacea3 during the coal period. A piece of Lancashire

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cxliii

coal was pulverized and exposed to a white heat ; the de-
carbonized dust was treated with acid and chlorate of po-
tassa, washed clean with distilled water, and placed under
the microscope. Many diatoms, almost exclusively fresh-
water genera, and species now living, were found. A piece
of cannel-coal from Scotland and another from the St. Eti-
enne mines gave the same result. The experiment needs
repeating to prove that these organisms from the coal epoch
to the present time have undergone no perceptible modifica-
tion.

In the Monthly Microscopical Journal for September, 1 875,
is an interesting paper by Worthington Gr. Smith on the
resting spores of the potato fungus, or the " new " potato
disease, as it has been called, and he shows that it is no
other than the old enemy in disguise, Peronospora infestans,
in an unusual and excited condition. The article is well il-
lustrated, and worthy the attention of microscopists interest-
ed in the study of these parasitic organisms. In the same
journal is the conclusion of Dr. Bastian's address on the
microscopic germ theory of disease, in which he insists that
the facts already known abundantly suffice to displace the
narrow and exclusive vital theory, and to re-establish a
broader physico-chemical theory of fermentation, and that
the original notion, borrowed from the vital theory of fer-
mentation, that all the organisms met with in a fermenting
mixture are strictly lineal descendants of those originally
introduced as ferments, must disappear with the vital theory
itself, and with it the old explanation of the mode of increase
of contagium within the body.

A paper of some interest on the sphcerap hides in plants
appears in the Monthly Microscopical Journal for December,
1874. The author states that in Urtica dioica, U. ure?is,
and Parietaria diffusia the leaf blades are studded with
sphaBraphides about -^^ of an inch in diameter, composed
mainly of carbonate of lime ; smaller forms, with projecting
crystalline points, and composed of oxalate of lime, occur in
the fibro-vascular bundles of the leaf; the same two kinds
abound in the leaf and pith of Hamulus lupulus.

Dr. Bastian delivered an address lately before the Patho-
logical Society of London, on the microscopic germ theory
of disease. The conclusion he has arrived at is opposed

cxliv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

to the two forms of the "germ theory * of Dr. Sanderson and
Dr. Beale, and, indeed, adverse to the holding of any germ
theory in the only form in which it may be at all tenable.
No doubt a lively discussion will be elicited, but we much
doubt whether any conclusion acceptable to all will be ar-
rived at.

Infusoriae, etc. At a recent meeting of the Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences in Philadelphia, Dr. Leidy described a curious
rhizopod found in a mill-pond, and measuring -j-J-g- of an inch
in length. It moves slowly with a snail-like motion, and pro-
trudes numerous papilla? and processes which bristle with
rigid spicules, which can be shortened or withdrawn a pecul-
iarity that separates the animal so widely from its nearest ally
that it probably belongs to a distinct genus. It is therefore
named by Dr. Leidy Dinamoeba mirabilis. A very curious
and interesting discovery of what appear to be fresh-water
polycystinse has lately been made, and a paper embodying all
at present known with regard to them may soon be expected
from Mr. George W. Morehouse ; hitherto they have been
considered exclusively marine, and are found in the deepest
sea soundings, where, either from the solution of the carbon-
ate of lime or other cause, the foraminifera have entirely dis-
appeared. The lamented Professor H. J. Clark published
in 1866 in Sillima?i's Journal a paper in which he maintain-
ed that the sponge was an aggregation of flagellate infusoria,
a compound protozoan animal ; the same view had been sub-
stantially announced a little before by Mr. Carter. Haeckel
has more recently modified this view, contending that the
flagellate monads of Clark are simply cells lining the general
stomach cavity of the sponge, and that therefore it is not a
compound infusorian, but a more highly organized animal
related to the radiates. He regards the sponges and acale-
plue as having been evolved from a common ancestor, which
he terms Protascus.

We note in the Monthly Microscopical Journal for May
the completion of the excellent series of papers by Messrs.
Dallinger and Drysdale, entitled "Researches into the Life
History of the Monads." Five different forms of these have
been thoroughly studied, and they name them respectively
the cercomonad, the springing monad, the uniflagellate, the bi-
flagellate, and the calycine, the latter so named from its pe-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cxlv

culiar calyx-like form. The authors state that the complete
detail in the development of these monads was only success-
fully compassed by the one twenty-fifth and one fiftieth of
Powell and Lealand, with diameters ranging from 2500 to
5000. They express a complete distrust of all observations
founded on successive " dips " in a quickly changing organic
infusion, and put no faith in observations of this sort, and not
conducted on the plan of keeping the same drop under con-
tinuous observation during all alleged transformations. From
their own observations on these lowly forms they are con-
strained to say " that not the slightest countenance is given
to the doctrine of heterogenesis. On the contrary, they find
the life cycle of a monad to be as rigidly circumscribed with-
in definite limits as that of a mollusk or a bird. The heat-
ing experiments uniformly proved that the spores resulting
from sexual generation have a power of resistance to heat
over the adult, which is greater in the proportion of eleven
to six on the average the very essence of the question of
biogenesis versus abiogenesis some of the spores resisting
88 Fahr. above the boiling point of water. This result
agrees with the experiments of Dr. W. Roberts, and later
of Huitzinga, who could not destroy the bacteria or their
germs by boiling for half an hour under a heat of 230
Fahr.

In the proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy, April,
1875, we find a paper by Dr. Leidy upon a curious rhizopod,
which he terms Blomyxa vagcms. He compares it to the
reticular pseudopods of a Grornia separated from the body.
The creature moved actively, and assumed the most varied
forms. This curious rhizopod had already been observed,
especially in connection with the Diatomaceae. When, in
moving along the stems of conferva, it encounters a group of
diatoms synedra, e. g. instantly the whole mass spreads
out and envelops them, and for hours remains motionless, ex-
cept the movement of the internal granules. A partial so-
lution of the silica is effected in the process of digestion ; for
after some hours an enveloping case, partially silicious, and
which has formed during the interval, inclosing both rhizo-
pod and diatoms, is ruptured, and in one or more streams the
branching mass escapes, leaving the silicious case quite per-
ceptible, and the diatoms so firmly fused together that se-

V

cxlvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

vere treatment with acids will not separate them. Professor
Leidy considers it sufficiently distinct to represent a genus,
and it is certainly a remarkable object. It was, no doubt, a
case of encysting of this kind upon which Dr. Bastian, in his
" Beginnings of Life," founds his assertion of the resolution
of Euglena into diatoms.

A paper was recently read before the Quekett Microscop-
ical Club, by Mr. W. F. Woods, on the relation of Bucephalus
to the cockle. He states that, in contradistinction to the
opinion of M. Lacaze-Duthiers, who has described it as a cer-
carian form of some unknown Distoma, that either, first, the
Bucephalus is the larva of the cockle (and if not, it remains
an interesting question for solution what is), or, second, the
Bucephalus is a parasite ; but if so, it does not render the
cockle sterile, as asserted by Lacaze-Duthiers; and, third, the
connection of the tube with the ovisacs, as established by
presence of eggs in both, proves that it is not an independent
sporocyst, but an organ of the cockle ; while, fourth, if this
connection be denied, the Bucephalus must still be developed
from eggs seen in the tube.

In contradistinction of a third assertion by Lacaze-Du-
thiers, Dr.Wallich writes as follows in the Lancet (June 12) on
the subject of nutrition of the protozoan. He states that for
fifteen years he has stood alone in maintaining that the law
of nutrition which prevails in the case of the higher orders of
the animal kingdom, and constitutes the fundamental distinc-
tion between it and the vegetable kingdom, fails in the case of
the simplest and humblest creatures ; and he expresses a be-
lief that the lower rhizopods provide for their nutrition and
growth by eliminating from the medium in which they live
the inorganic elements that enter into the composition of
their protoplasm, and that there is no hard-and-fast line be-
tween the two extremes of the two great kingdoms, but a
gradual transition and overlapping from both sides. The re-
sults of deep-sea explorations, and especially the examina-
tions of the Tuscarora soundings, do not confirm this view;
the vegetable growths, even at extremest depths, proceed
p)ari passu with the animal, and we see as yet no reason why
the same provision that holds good in the case of the higher
and terrestrial organisms should not be extended to the hum-
blest marine or aqueous forms.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cxlvii

Professor Leidy has recently called attention to the para-
site that lives in the proboscis of the house-fly, a thread-worm
Filaria muscce first discovered by the well-known natu-
ralist Mr. J. H. Carter in the house-fly of India. Dr. Leidy
found it in numbers from one to three in about one fly in five.
Dr. Diesing has referred the parasite to a new genus, with
the name Habronema muscce. The singular position in which
the worm lives suggests that there are many unsuspected
places in which we may have to search to find the parents
or offspring of our own parasites.

In a communication to the French Academy in Novem-
ber last, M. Duval, calling attention to a former paper in the
Journal de VAnatomie, September, 1874, states that he has
found a means of explaining both the doctrines of the pan-
spermists and the heterogenists. The explanation lies simply
in the statement that he has discovered that the various so-
called minute organisms (such as ferments) are simply one
and the same organism, which has the power of becoming
differently developed. He asserts that he has proved by
experiment that the transformation of yeasts is possible, and
that the specificity of action of different ferments is a purely
relative phenomenon, dependent rather upon the composition
or the state of the media than upon the proper constitution
of these same organisms.

For ten years after the publication of Ehrenberg's " Infu-
sionsthierchen," it was supposed that the Rotifera were all
hermaphrodites. In 1845 Mr. Brightwell discovered a roti-
fer with separate sexes in the genus Asplanchna; in 1850
Mr. Gosse discovered the male of another species of the same
genus, and in 1854 Dr. Leydig that of a third. Two years
later Mr. Gosse figured in the "Philosophical Transactions"
the males of several species of Brachionus, Polisarthra, Syn-
chceta, and Saeculus. More recently Dr. C. T. Hudson has
discovered the male of Pedalion minim. Previously to this
discovery it will be noticed that the others belong all to one
group the free swimming rotifers ; and this caused Professor
Huxley to consider the Motif era as permanent forms ofechi-
noderm larval, and his argument was hard to answer, for it
rested on the supposed monoecious character of some of the
largest and most common rotifers creatures constantly
watched and studied in consequence of their great size and

cxlviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

beauty. The discovery of Mr. Hudson, especially of the male
of Lacimdaria socialis, weakens Mr. Huxley's argument con-
siderably. And though it may possibly still be held desira-
ble to rank the Kotifera among the Vermes, we can not reckon
among the reasons their sexual resemblances to the echino-
derms; and there is at least one, viz., JPedalion, which it seems
impossible to class among the worms, for it has six hollow
limbs worked by striated muscles, some of which pass freely
through the cavity of the body.

II. BACTERIA.

Messrs. Dallinger and Drysdale, whose excellent researches
on the life history of a monad have elicited universal com-
mendation, have recently taken up the study of Bacteria.
Using the new immersion, one-eighth of Powell and Lealand,
an objective capable of resolving the strise of Arnphipleura
pellucida into beads, as also the fine strire of Surirella gem-
ma, they find that B. termo is furnished at both ends with a
ilagellum, exquisitely delicate, and only to be discovered
when in the proper position in regard to the light.

In an abstract of a paper by Dr. Hollis on " What is a Bac-
terium ?" in the January number of the Monthly Microscop-
ical Journal, the limitations we should place on the term
Bacteria are summed up: 1. They strictly form part of the
vegetable kingdom. 2. The name ought to be restricted to
those minute rod-like hyaline bodies, B. termo and B. lineo-
lata of Cohn, with a more or less rapid to-and-fro motion.
3. We must always associate the presence of true Bacteria
(especially the B. termo) with putrefactive or analogous
changes in organic liquids.

Development of Bacteria in Organic Tissues Protected from
Air. 31. Servel recently read an interesting paper on this
subject before the French Academy of Sciences. The first
two experiments were upon Guinea-pigs; the live animals
were decapitated so that the head fell at once into a chromic-
acid bath. Examined six days after immersion, the outer
parts were hard and preserved, but the cerebral parts were
in manifest corruption, and the cerebral pulp, under the mi-
croscope, presented a large number of bacteria of all sizes.
In these experiments the absence of air-germs was not suf-
ficiently demonstrated, and M. Servel repeated them with the

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cxlix

livers and kidneys of dogs, killed for this purpose by femoral
bleeding. To eliminate sources of error, and especially en-
trance of air by the wound, he placed a ligature at the level
of the hilum of the liver and kidney to be experimented on,
the organs were removed, preserving their envelope of con-
nective tissue, and the ligature was used to suspend the or-
gans in the bath. Examination some days after showed that
the surface was hardened throughout, but the central parts
were full of bacteria ; the chromic acid at once arrested their
movement. Hence he concludes : 1. That MM. Bechamp
and Estor's demonstration of the production and evolution
of bacteria in organic tissues protected from air-germs is
quite exact. 2. That the effect produced by preservative
agents is the death of microzymes, or molecular elements
surviving in the organs.

III. THE CHALLENGER AND TUSCAEORA SOUNDINGS.

Dr. Wyville Thompson says, in his report in the Proceed-
ings of the Royal Society, No. 156, that in latitude 60 52'
south, longitude 80 20' east, also 53 55' south, and 108 35'
east, the sounding instrument came up filled with a very fine
cream-colored paste, which scarcely effervesced with acid,
and dried into a very light impalpable white powder; exam-
ined under the microscope, it was found to consist almost en-
tirely of the frustules of diatoms, many broken, and some
wonderfully perfect ; with these were rods of a singular
silicious organism, hollow, and, as subsequently obtained
floating by means of a tow net, a little to the north of the
Heard Islands, containing the characteristic endochrome of
the diatoms. The tow net was at this time filled with a
pale yellow gelatinous mass of diatom ooze, and Professor
Thompson, considering the bottom Diatomacese as dropped
from this belt of diatom ooze, as he terms it, and which was
found somewhat farther southward, attributes the difference
of position to the reflux of the Agulhas current. The exist-
ence of diatom ooze over vast surfaces of the Pacific is abun-
dantly proved from the soundings of the Tuscarora. Many
of these consist of diatoms only, and as they are not in the
semi-fossil condition of those obtained by the Challenger, but
still with endochrome within the frustules, and the ooze itself
of a yellowish-green tint, it is but fair to conclude that ex-

cl GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

tensive belts of these organisms are still living at great
depths, and serving the purpose, precisely after the manner
of land plants, of eliminating carbonic acid, appropriating
the carbon and giving forth the oxygen.

One of the finest yields of diatomacea), principally Coscino-
discus omphalanthas, C. concavus, Asterolampra BrooJcei,
Mhizosolenia hebetata, and Triceratrwn arcticiwi, was from
latitude 52 11' north and longitude 1*76 48' east, from a
depth of 1681 fathoms. Another cast, latitude 43 47' north,
longitude 150 2' east, from a depth of 4234 fathoms, con-
sisted almost entirely of diatornaceae, principally Coscinodis-
cus and Biddulphia.

Anions other interesting results from examination of the
deep-sea soundings of the Tascarora, we may mention the
occurrence of undoubted living foraminifera, not derived
surface forms, at a depth of 2711 fathoms. At this depth, as
might be expected from the large amount of carbonic acid,
no calcareous organisms could exist, and none, except a stray
globigerinciy too recently dropped to be dissolved, were found;
but there were multitudes of sandy Lagenidce, some very
large ; also Litaoldice (especially L. ccmariensis, and various
Trochammince and Dentalince, with polished sandy tests like
Trochammind). But the most noteworthy fact was the oc-
currence of Orbulma, not with calcareous or sand-incrusted
calcareous tests, but with shells wholly of sand grains, and
perfect in shape, too large and heavy to have ever floated.
The abundance and character of all these forms, along with
which were numerous sand tubes and great numbers ofAcan-
thomet?'i>ice, TkaUassicoUince, and Polycystince, preclude the
idea of dropped surface forms. In another sounding, of 108
fathoms, were fine specimens of Idngulina, and some trans-
parent enough to show distinctly the early growth, a rapidly
increasing spiral, which is masked entirely in the fully devel-
oped, and more or less sandy rectilineal tests of the matured
form. At a depth of 1625 fathoms, specimens were found of
the genus Ellipsoidina of Professor Seguenza, hitherto only
known as fossil from the miocene marls around Messina.

In a paper read before the Royal Society, November 26,
1874, by Professor C. Wyville Thompson, the origin of the
calcareous formation known as " globigerina ooze " is attrib-
uted to surface organisms, as advocated bv the late Professor

T* / m*

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cli

Bailey, of West Point, and others ; and in partial proof that

all the organisms entering into its composition are dead, the

statement was made that " there are never spines on the

globigerinse from the bottom, even in the shallowest water."

This is a mistake, as the spinous globigerinae were quite

abundant in the soundings from the Gulf of Campeche made

during the summer of 1874, during the cruise of the United

States steamship Fortune, from depths of between 64 and 210

fathoms.

ETHNOLOGY.

Our summary of progress in Anthropology and Ethnology
will embrace :

1. An account of prehistoric researches in various parts of
the world.

2. A record of investigations among living tribes of men.

3. A synopsis of discussions upon general and special prob-
lems.

4. A report of improved apparatus of research ; of expe-
ditions and instructions to observers; of anthropological so-
cieties and sections of general societies, and their published
Proceedings; of museums and notable private collections; of
periodicals, wholly or in part devoted to anthropology; and
of the bibliography of the subject since the publication of
our last volume.

I. PREHISTORIC RESEARCHES.

America. The Alaska Commercial Company has presented
to the National Museum eight mummies from the cave of
Kagamil, Aleutian Islands. They resemble those from Peru,
being doubled up and wrapped in the finest furs and grass
matting.

Alphonse L. Pinart publishes an account of his exploration
of the cave of Aknanh, Island of Ounga.

Le Pere Petitot, in a long communication to the Paris
Geographical Society, describes the stone and bone imple-
ments found in the Mackenzie River district.

Some of the most extensive and successful researches ever
made in American archaeology are being conducted by Mr.
Paul Schumacher, under the auspices of the Smithsonian In-
stitution, on the west coast of the United States from Oregon
to the Santa Barbara Islands. Hundreds of skulls have been

clii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

exhumed, and the amount of mortars, pestles, stone imple-
ments of every sort, pottery, burial deposits, etc., is simply
incredible. A partial report of his labors will be found in
the Smithsonian Report for 1874. The finest specimens of his
collection will be exhibited at the Centennial. Further re-
ports on California will be found in the paper of A. S.Hud-
son, M.D., " On Shell-mounds in Oakland, California" (Proc.
Cal. Acad., 1874), and that of Mr. L. G. Yates, on " Aborigi-
nal Mounds in California" (Am. Assoc, 1875). The research-
es of Stephen Powers in Northern California, and of Rev.
Stephen Bowers in Santa Barbara, are also to be noticed.

The government surveyors of the Great Interior Basin
have been as fortunate as usual in discovering relics of an-
cient populations.

Messrs. Holmes and Jackson have examined a series of
rock-shelter dwellings, towers, burial-places, etc., and have
recovered a great number of inscriptions from the face of the
cliffs in Southwestern Colorado and Northeastern Arizona,
on the River San Juan and its tributaries. The most inter-
esting: of their discoveries in 1874 are described in Bancroft
("Native Races," Vol. IV., Chap. XI.). Their last summer's
finds are graphically detailed in the JV. Y. Herald letters.

Professor R.J. Farquharson read a paper before the Amer-
ican Association at Detroit on "Recent Mound Explorations
at Davenport, Iowa." Mr. Henry Oilman gave an account
of the ancient men of the great lakes, with especial refer-
ence to flattened tibiae. In the Smithsonian Report for 1875
the same author will describe skull perforations from the
same district, of which he has observed about twenty ex-
amples. The following communications were also made to
the Detroit meeting: "On Mound Explorations in Kent
County, Michigan," by Professor E. A. Strong and W. C. Cof-
finberry ; " On Archeology in Wyoming," by F. B. Comstock;
"On Ancient Structures of New Mexico," by E.D.Cope ; "On
Indian Mounds and Shell-heaps near Pensacola, Florida," by
Dr. George Sternberg.

Dr. C. Schmidt read before the German Association at Mu-
nich a memoir on American mounds compared with remains
of old mounds in Southern Germany. Mr. Joseph Wilcox
describes in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sci-
ences of Philadelphia an ancient burial custom in Tennessee.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cliii

The State Archaeological Association of Indiana held a
meeting on September 29th and 30th, to take measures for
preserving the monuments of the state. Other states of the
Mississippi Valley are engaged in the same laudable work.

Dr. N. Joly has an article in La Nature (January 23, 1875)
on " L'Homme Primitif Americain."

In Revista de Antropologia, Madrid, February and May,
1875, is an article entitled "De las Armas offensivas y de-
fensivas cle los Primitivos Americanos."

Mr. Hyde Clarke has just published, through Triibner &
Co., in pamphlet form, his article in the Journal of the An-
thropological Institute entitled "Researches in Prehistoric and
Protohistoric Comparative Philology, Mythology, and Archae-
ology in Connection with the Origin of Culture in America,
and the Accad or Sumerian Families." The author attempts
to utilize the latest investigations of cuneiform inscriptions
in unveiling the mysteries of American colonization.

The eighth Annual Report of the Peabody Museum con-
tains an account of the Swallow Collection, the Collection
of Professor Wyman in Florida, and reports of smaller North
American donations.

The "Congres International des Americanistes" was held
at Nancy from July 19th to 22d. The programme was as
follows :

First Meeting. History of Ancient America, and ante-Co-
lumbian relations with the Old World. President, M. Torres
Caicedo, San Salvador.

Second Meeting. Ethnology. President, Professor Hynes,
Boston.

ThirdMeeting. Language. President,Waldemar Schmidt,
Copenhagen.

Fourth Meeting. Archaeology. President, Fr. von Hell-
wald.

The following gentlemen presented papers :

M. Gravier. The Dighton Rock inscription.

M. Foucheux. The Relation of the Buddhists with America
at the commencement of our era.

M. Lucien Adam. The legend of Hoei-Chin, and the claims
of Mexico to be the Fou-Sang of the voyagers.

The legends of the lost Atlantis, of Phoenician voyagers to
our shores, and of Phoenician inscriptions, met with little fa-

7*

cliv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

vor. The opinion of M. Dally, that in studying American
primitive history the purest scientific processes should be
employed, met with general approval.

M. le Baron de Bretton, delegate of the King of Denmark,
presented an important paper on the discoveries of the North-
men.

In the second meeting, the following gentlemen partic-
ipated :

Dr. Paul Broca. On the deformed skulls of the Chibchas
and other tribes.

M. L. Petitot. On the Southern origin of the Esquimaux.

M. Mader de Montjau. On the indigenes of Hayti.

M. Jules Ballet, of Guadaloupe. On the Caribs of the An-
tilles.

In the third meeting, papers were read by :

M. Pacheco Zigarro, of Cuzco. On the Quichua.

M. Leon de Rosny. On the systems of deciphering the
Maya.

M. Julien Adam, for M. Julien Vinson. On the pretended
analogy between the New World tongues and the Basque
language.

In the fourth meeting the following gentlemen took part :

M. Oscar Comettant. Music in America before Columbus.
"The Peruvian flute is sad, timid, and prophetic; and, after
having presided over the magnificent fetes of the Incas, serves
to console their descendants in degradation and slavery."

M.Waldemar Schmidt. On sketching: and other art mani-
festations among native Greenlanders.

The executor of the will of Mr. George Latimer has sent
from Porto Rico to the Smithsonian Institution the mao-nifi-
cent prehistoric collection of that gentleman, embracing 36
sacrificial yokes (?), a large number of mammiform stones of
various patterns, a beautiful collection of celts, besides a va-
riety of other materials.

In Scribner' , s Monthly for August is an illustrated article
on the "Stone Age of the Antilles."

Mr. Herbert Spencer's " Descriptive Sociology," Div. II.,
Pt. I., B, is devoted to Mexicans, Central Americans, Chib-
chas, and Peruvians.

Vol. I. of Pinart's "Bibliotheque de Linguistique et d'Eth-
nographie Amcricaines," is devoted to the " Lingua Chia-
paneca."

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. civ

Lopez Borregnero has published in Madrid this year his
work entitled " Los Indios Caribes, Memorias Interessantes
de Venezuela.'

Mr. Hutchinson continues his interesting researches anions:

CD CD

Peruvian antiquities. He objects to having them all ascribed
to the Incas. He agrees with Mr. Baldwin that the original

CD CD

South Americans were the oldest people on the continent,
and that "the mythical cradle of the Incas will be sought in
the National Library at Madrid, instead of in the Lake of
Titicaca, to which latter place it is assigned by the Hackluyt
Society."

In the Revue cV Anthropologie, No. 1, 1875, M. Ber makes a
communication on the prehistoric populations of Ancon, Peru,
with an appendix by M. Topinard. Professor Bastian is now
traveling in Peru and Ecuador, examining their antiqui-
ties.

Dr. Reiss, of Riobamba, Ecuador, sent to the German An-
thropological Society, in 1874, some interesting remains of
the times of the Incas. Professor Seebach at the same meet-
ing gave an ethnographical scheme of the Central American
tribes.

Professor Hartt, in his treatise on pottery, promises an ex-
tended work on Brazilian antiquities.

Francesco P. Moreno has published in Buenos Ayres, " No-
ticias sobre antiquidades de los Indios del tempo anterior a
la Conquista de Buenos Ayres."

The most interesting prehistoric find from South America
is the skeleton of a foetus from Peru, presented to the mu-
seum of the Laboratory of Anthropology of Paris by Dr.
Bourne. Dr. Paul Broca has made a thorough examination

CD

of this specimen with reference to the pretended " os de Tin-
ea," or the uniform occurrence of a supernumerary bone in
this race, similar to the intraparietal of some mammals. He
concludes, "It is certain that the great majority of Peru-
vian skulls do not possess this intraparietal bone, but the
phenomenon occurs often enough to render it probable that
it occurs more frequently among the Peruvians than in any
other race."

The whole subject of North American Archaeology is re-
viewed in the fourth volume of Bancroft's " Native Races,"
embracing among other matters the latest researches of

clvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

Messrs. Holmes and Jackson among the rock-shelter struct-
ures, stone towers, etc., of Arizona and New Mexico.

Europe. In the Belfast volume of the British Association
(p. 11G) is a most interesting abstract of Sir William Wilde's
address before the Anthropological Department, on the sub-
ject of the early races who peopled Ireland in consecutive
order, their remains still existing, and an inquiry as to what
vestiges of these different waves of population remain to the
present hour.

In discussing the names of the rivers and peoples in Ire-
land, Hyde Clarke, before the same meeting, called atten-
tion to the similarity of many of them with those of the civ-
ilized tribes of North America. This w r as not due to the
Phoenician, but to the much earlier period of civilization
called the Sumir and the Accad of Babylonia, when the
world was of one official speech, and great monumental
cities were raised by people speaking allied languages in
Southern Europe, Asia Minor, Babylon, India, China, Peru,
and Mexico.

Before the British Association this year the following
papers on European Archeology were read :

Canon Rawlinson, " On the Ethnography of the Cymbri."
The authority of Caesar and Tacitus in favor of the German-
ic origin of this ancient race was set aside for the belief in
their affinity with the Celts. This elicited from Mr. Free-
man a warm eulogy on the historians in question. Dr. Bed-
doe and the Rev. J. Earle supported the paper.

Professor Rolleston, " On the Long Barrow Period," which
he divides into three epochs. In the earliest, the dead w r ere
buried in chambers or galleries so constructed as to admit
of successive interments. In the next period the dead were
buried unburned in cists. In the third, cremation was prac-
ticed.

W. Mortimer, " On the Crania of the Round Barrows of
the Yorkshire Wolds."

"VV. Pengelly, F.R.S.,"On the excavation of Kent's Cave,"
and Mr. II. H. Tiddeman on the "Victoria Cave." The pres-
ident of the section, Dr. T. Wright, commenting on the re-
ports, was of the opinion that no direct evidence had been
found that man existed in the British Isles previously to
the glacial period. Mr. Pengelly will deliver a course of

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. clvii

lectures, the coming season, before the Glasgow Lecture As-
sociation, on Kent's Cavern its testimony to the antiquity
of man.

Mr. Brooke Pennington (Dec. 8th, 18^4) read a paper be-
fore the Anthropological Institute on the tumuli and stone
circles near Castleton, in Derbyshire. He gave a full ac-
count of the explorations of the barrow of Eldon Hill, forty-
nine feet in diameter, containing remains of man, horse, rat,
and pieces of wrought antler. The Rev. S. Magens Mello
also spoke of a bone-cave in Cresswell Crags, on the eastern
border of Derbyshire.

In France the greatest activity prevails with reference to
researches in definite localities, and concerning the strata of
population successively inhabiting the different departments.
In addition to the Bulletin de la Societe a 1 " 1 Anthropologic,
two able periodicals, Revue d' Anthropologic, and Materiaux
pour V Histoire primitive et naturelle de V Homme, are devoted
entirely to anthropological investigations.

Before the French Association, Dr. Lagneau read a long
and scholarly memoir on the ethnogeny of the populations
of the northwest of France, passing in review the different
peoples concerned in the ancient and present occupation of
the region between the sea, the Saone, and the Loire. In
prehistoric times, some dolichocephalic skulls, and two kinds
of brachycephalic skulls the one kind small, the other large
and voluminous assert the existence of at least three dis-
tinct races. The author cited both classic authorities and
modern researches to establish his conclusions ; and from the
discussion awakened Ave conclude this to be one of the most
important papers read.

M. Chantre also read a report on excavations made by
the Archaeological Society of Charente. M. Philip Salmon
gave a description of his discoveries at Grand None, com-
mune of Vinneuf (Yonne). M. de Baye reported having ex-
tracted from the grottoes of Baye (Marne) 54 skulls : 28 of
men, 24 of women, and 2 of children.

Parts XVI. and XVII. of " Reliquias AquitanicaB" have
appeared, the former containing :

Chapter XXIII. Observations on the birds whose bones
have been found in the caves of the southwest of France,
by Alphonse Milne-Edwards.

clyiii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

Chapter XXIV. Notes on objects of stone from the caves
of Les Eyzies, valley of Vezere, Perigord, by Professor T.
Rupert Jones.

Chapter XXV. (extending into Part XVII.). Fossil man
from La Madelaine and Laugerie Basse, by E. T. Hamy :

" The human bones from La Madelaine, Laugerie Basse,
Bruniquel, etc., have recently been compared with those of
the rock shelter of Cro-Magnon, and, thanks to the exagger-
ated ethnic characters of the latter, a number of peculiarities
of the second order, which at first escaped notice, have been
recognized and appreciated. We have been able up to a
certain point to classify the characters, the degree of the
fixity of which has been brought out by all these compari-
sons, consequently to determine which are the constant feat-
ures of a race, and which are individual variation, and the
amount of the latter, and finally, with the aid of this deter-
mination, to commence the study of the extension of the
ethnic group in space and time." Part XVII., containing the
closing chapters and full indexes, finishes up the work.

The origin and spread of the Basques is eliciting a great
deal of discussion in France and the rest of Europe. Dr.
Paul Broca, in Revue d^ Anthropologic, No. 1, 1875, has a
long and interesting article on the subject. In the Journal
of the Anthropological Institute, the Rev. Wentworth Web-
ster reviews at length the article of Boyd Dawkins in the
Fortnightly of September, 1874, on the same subject.

At the Geographical Exposition, Paris, a prehistoric chart
of France was exhibited by M. Mortillet. The same author
has completed a scheme of French early history.

The Paleolithic Age he divides into four epochs :

St. Acheul. (Almond-shaped flaked axe.) The oldest.

Moustier. (Flint arrow-heads and scrapers, bilateral flake.)

Solutre. (Bay-leaf shaped arrow-head, bilateral chipping.)

Madelaine. (Barbed bone arrow-heads and flint knives.)

The Neolithic Age has one epoch :

Robenhausen. (Polished stone axes, flint arrow-heads,
serrate chipping.)

The Bronze Age has two epochs :

Morgien. (First appearance of bronze.)

Larnaudien. (Objects hammered out, greater variety and
finish.)

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. clix

The Iron Age, Protohistoric Era, has two periods the
Tumulus and the Gallic.

The Tumulus Period has one epoch :

Hallstattien. (First appearance of iron.)

The Gallic Period is called

Marnien : epoch of the Marne, Helvetian epoch, third La-
custrian epoch. (Appearance of money.)

The Iron Age, Historic Era, has two periods the Ro-
man and the Merovingian.

The Roman Period has two epochs :

Lugdunien. (Roman money and industry prevailing.)

Champdolien. (Decadence of art and industry.)

The Jlerovingian Period is called

Wabenien : epoch of Waben, Frank or Burgundian epoch,
Helveto-Burgundian epoch, Germanic epoch. (Roman in-
dustry replaced by forms entirely new.) " Materiaux,"
1875, Aug., p. 373 ; and "Tableau Arch, de la Gaule," Paris,
E. Leroux. .

A communication made by Dr. Prunieres, of Marvejols, be-
fore the meeting of the French Association for the Advance-
ment of Science at Lille, treated of the curious artificial per-
forations common anions; the neolithic skulls of the Lozere.
These perforations vary in the pieces exhibited from an inch
to an inch and a quarter in diameter. Near the perforated
skulls were found rings of cranial bone, which seemed to
be designed as amulets. They were evidently worked with
flint tools. The men of the polished stone age practiced
trepanning ; for if some of the skulls appear to have been
perforated after death, others were treated during life, and
the patients had lived for years afterward. One skull pre-
sented three perforations, made near each other upon a line
fore and aft. There is no distinction of age, the excisions
occurring upon infants as well as upon adults. The motive
of this strange custom was either medical or superstitious.
They probably attributed disease to supernatural agencies.
The evil spirit escaped through the opening made by the
sorcerer, who wrapped the operation in a shroud of mystery
by preserving the detached piece as a precious relic. From
the appearance of these facts reported by the learned archae-
ologist of Lozere, he said that a new light had been shed
upon the intellectual state of man in the polished stone age.

clx GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

It explained his religious conceptions, and confirmed the dis-
covery of the figure of a goddess in the caverns of Baye
(Marne). M. Broca remarks that perforated skulls were
found also at the last-named station. Amon^ the skulls
dug up by General Faidherbe were found two in the same
condition. Dr. Chil, from the Canary Islands, said that per-
forated skulls had been found in the ancient burial-places of
his country.

Attention was also called to an example from the grotto
of Lorde, upon which M. Hamy and M. Chaplain -Duparc
gave some interesting details. A similarly perforated or
trepanned skull was found by Mr. E. G. Squier among some
ancient Peruvian crania collected by him. Bull. Soc. cVAn-
thro., 1874, 2 fasc, pp. 185, 205, and 1875, p. 542, 555 ; Comp-
tes Rendus, 1874, LXXIX. ; Pop. Sci. Monthly, Sept., 1875,
p. 607.

Before the French Association, 1875, M. Chauvet reported
the same phenomenon in the tumuli of Charente. A discus-
sion by Dr. Broca and others ensued. See also in Part II.
of this paper under Sanson,

M. Choquet, in his excavations near Montereau (Seine et
Marne), has discovered, in connection with pottery, vases,
and polished flint hatchets, forty-four distal ends of humeri,
which have the olecranian fosse piercing the bone similarly
to those mentioned by Mr. Henry Gilman in the Michigan
mounds.

M. E. Baudrimont has discovered in the dolmen of Font-
Real (Aveyron) a fragment of the lower part of a tibia ex-
hibiting an exostosis produced by a flint arrow-head driven
in, not by the point, but by the barbs, and in such a position
that the projector was either below or pursuing the subject.
The difficulty of conceiving how an arrow could have been
shot into such a position inclines M. Baudrimont to think
that we have here an example of primitive surgery.

The subject of Swedish Archaeology is described in the
work of Oscar Montelius, entitled " Sur les tombeaux et la
topographic de la Suede pendant Page de la pierre."

C. Engelhardt (" Materiaux," 1875, liv. 1, p. 68) gives an
account of a tumulus excavated by him in Laland, Den-
mark. In the same volume (page 350) is a resume of arch-
aeological work done in Denmark since 1869.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. clxi

We have also received the report of the Museum at Co-
penhagen, by Waldemar Schmidt, containing, among other
matters, an illustrated account of some Porto Rico stone im-
plements.

A new pile-dwelling was lately discovered at the Swiss
hamlet of Vingelz, not far from Biel, where, at a depth of
only about three or four feet below the surface, a platform
was found resting upon piles, and composed of beams nearly
a foot thick.

The most interesting prehistoric Swiss discovery is that
of Dr. Scheuermann, of Basle, who called the attention of
Professor Rutimeyer to the fact that, while observing the im-
pression of plants in the lignite (Schieferkohle), he noticed a
number of pointed sticks resembling in appearance the sur-
rounding coal. These Professor Rutimeyer thought to be
of the species Abies excelsa, and certainly showing evidence
of human workmanship. He moreover regarded them as
contemporaneous with the coal. This coal is not only over-
laid with glacial drift, but at least in some places (Metzikon,
etc.) its substratum is of an erratic nature. If the Profess-
or's conclusions are correct, we have here evidences of hu-
man work contemporaneous with Elephas antiqiius, Rhinoc-
eros murkily cave bear, and aurochs in an interglacial period.

The annual meeting of the German Anthropological So-
ciety was held at Munich from the 9th to the 11th of Au-
gust. The most flattering reports were received with ref-
erence to the prehistoric charts of Germany, which when fin-
ished will enable us to draw up for that country a scheme
of history similar to M. Mortillet's archseologic charts of
Gaul. Professor Schaafhausen presented a report upon the
expenses incurred in excavating at Klusenstein, the cave of
Honnethal, and Martin's cave near Letmath. Professor
Virchow spoke of some peculiar forms of skulls from the
islands of the Zuyder Zee, and of the exhaustive work of
J. Wilhelm Sprengel on the skulls of the Neanderthal type.
(Brunswick, Vieweg & Son, 1875.)

In the report of the association for 1874 is a paper by
Herr Virchow on the areas of brachycephalic skulls in pre-
historic and historic times in Germany. Dr. Much, at
Munich, gave an account of archaeological researches in
1874 among the old German habitations and forts in Lower

clxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

Austria, especially on the Donau and the March. Mittheil.
der Anth. Ges. in Wim, 1875, Nos. 2, 3, 6, 7.

Ilerr Eckers made a report on researches into the remains
of the Celts in South Germany. "Philology and archaeol-
ogy testify to the presence of the Celts, but Celtic skulls are
unknown among us. Cemeteries containing dolichocephalic
Germans exist every where, while in the tumuli graves, es-
pecially in Schwarzwald, the brachy cephalic skull prevails.
Have the Germans in their immigration into their present
abodes found a people whom they partly destroyed, but
from whom the tumuli graves proceed?" The discussion
of the Celt question was taken up by Virchow, Kollman,
Schaafhausen, Desor, Lindenschmidt, Mehlis, Marggraf, and
others. Virchow also made a communication on the dikes
of defense in Posen.

Major Wurdinger gave a brief account of the prehistoric
finds in Bavaria. " The Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages are
not sharply divided here. Near Rosering a stone celt was
found with an iron sword. In a mound on the Salzach a
stone hammer was found with bronze rings of the later Ro-
man period. In the palafittes of Starnburger Lake, rude and
polished stone implements predominate over bone and horn."

The following interesting papers have been read before
the Anthropological Society of Vienna :

"Prehistoric Discoveries in Lower Austria in 1874," by
Heinrich Graf Wurmbrand.

" Results of Palafitte Researches," by the same.

" On Microcephaly," by Dr. A. Zuckerkandl.

"Prehistoric Objects from Schiittenhofen (Bohemia)," by
J. Wold rich.

"A Macrocephal Turkish Skull," by A. Weisbach.

" The Bone-cave of Thayngen, near SchafFhausen," by L.
Rutimeyer (see Annual Record, 1874, p. cxxi.). Professor
Merk has published an account of this, a translation of
which by J. E. Lee is issued by Longmans & Co. The next
annual meeting will be held at Jena.

A shell heap has been discovered near Athens, composed
almost entirely of a species of murex, and of others furnish-
ing coloring matter. It is therefore concluded that this is
the site of an ancient manufactory of the celebrated Tyrian
purple.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. clxiii

The National Quarterly Review^ 1875, pt. iv., has an article
on Prehistoric Greece.

The whole subject of the European Stone Age is com-
prehensively and ably presented by Dr. Charles Ran, of
New York, in Harper's Magazine from April to September,
1875.

Africa. Dr. Chil y Naranjo read a note before the French
Association describing the superstitious practices of the an-
cient Canariens.

There is an account of old Egyptian culture in the light
of modern researches in Aitsland of March 9th, et seq., with
profuse references to authorities.

Hyde Clarke read a paper before the British Association
at Bristol on prehistoric culture in India and Africa.

Asia. F. von Hellwald treats of the voyages of the Phoe-
nicians in Auslandy January 4, 1875, et seq.

The surveys of the Palestine Exploration Fund have been
pushed forward this season, and many sites have been iden-
tified. The party was attacked during the summer, and
some of them wounded, including Lieutenant Conder.

The American Palestine Exploration Society have pushed
their work forward on the east of the Jordan.

George Smith has again visited the Mesopotamian valley.
He has written two volumes of the "Ancient History from
the Monuments," and he has been able to recover from the
fragments in the British Museum the legend of the buildino-
of the tower of Babel.

At the meeting of the Anthropological Institute, Novem-
ber 24, 1874, Mr. C. Colesworth read a communication de-
scribing the ruined towers of Palmyra, containing skulls and
other human remains, which were examined and reported on
by Professor Busk.

The volume of Monier Williams, entitled "Indian Wis-
dom" (London, 1875, 8vo), is the best work on the litera-
ture, religion, etc., of the ancient Hindoos for the general
reader.

General Cunningham has issued from Calcutta his report
of the Archaeological Survey of India. James Burgess has
also published (London, 1875, 4to) an Archaeological Survey
of Western India.

Polynesia. Herbert Spencer's Descriptive Sociology (No.

clxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

3, Part I., A, Division I.) is devoted entirely to Types of
the Lowest Races, Negrito Races, and Malayo-Polyuesian
Races.

II. ETHNOLOGY OF EXTANT RACES.

America. M. Alphonse L. Pinart has published in Paris
this year "Ethnologie de la Cote Nord Ouest de l'Ame-
rique," and other pamphlets on the same subject. M. l'Abbe
Petitot has a long and carefully prepared article (Bull. Soc.
de Geog., July, Aug., Sept.) on the geography of the Atha-
basca-Mackenzie, in which he gives an exhaustive account of
the people, dividing them into Esquimaux, Algonquins, and
Dene-Dindjies; the last named commonly called Athabas-
cans, Chippewyans, or Tinnehs are a large family of Indians
inhabiting Western Alaska, Hudson Bay Territory, British
Columbia, etc., back from the sea. The author also at the
Congres des Americanistes gave a most interesting account
of his residence among the people as a missionary. He will
publish, through E. Leroux, Paris, a "Dictionnaire de la
Langue Dene-Dindjie (Montagnais, Peaux de Lievres, Lou-
cheux)."

Mr. James G. Swan, under the auspices of the Smithsonian
Institution and the Indian Bureau, will make an interesting
collection from the northwest coast to be exhibited at the
Centennial. The Rev. M. Eells has sent to the Smithsonian
Institution a manuscript of 164 pages, minutely describing
the Twamish Indians of Hood's Canal.

In the Proceedings of the California Academy for 1874,
Mr. Stephen Powers has two papers, one on the California
aborigines (392), another on aboriginal botany (373). In
the same volume is an illustrated article on the " mesh knot "
of the Port Simpson Indians, by George X)avidson.

The Smithsonian Report for 1874 contains an interesting
account of the burial of a squaw in San Bernardino, Cat, by
W. M. King.

General II. B. Carrington gave an account before the Brit-
ish Association of the Indians of Dakota.

All lovers of American ethnology will hear with pleasure
of Mr. Shea's continuation of American Linguistics. The
new series will commence with " A Grammar and Dictionary
of the Language of the Hidatsa (Gros Ventres)," by Wash-
ington Matthews, M.D., U.S.A.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. clxv

Major J. W. Powell, in his report of the Explorations of
the Colorado River of the West, gives some notes and il-
lustrations of the ethnology of that district. His long ac-
quaintance with the people, and their perfect confidence in
him, make him one of the most reliable historians of their
culture. He has a large collection of photographs of their
principal personages, of men, women, and children, singly
and in groups, engaged in their characteristic occupations.
He has also contributed to the National Museum a fine col-
lection of vessels, clothing, ornaments, implements, weapons,
gambling apparatus, and art-work, many of which will grace
the Centennial. The whole subject of aboriginal life within
the United States will be fully represented on that occasion.
A pamphlet of instructions has been sent to Indian agents
and others, and materials are already coming in from every
quarter, and of the most interesting character. It is also
proposed to display the living tribes by a family of four or
five individuals in a special reservation in the Philadelphia
Park, with their own outfit of clothing, dwelling, imple-
ments, etc.

The massive work of Hubert Howe Bancroft on the
" Native Races of the Pacific States," whose first volume
was merely noticed last year, is now completed. The hearty
thanks of all students of American ethnology are due to the
author for the zeal and patience with which he has prose-
cuted his labor. We have no space for a summary of the
contents of a work which in order to be appreciated must
not only be read but carefully studied. The 160 pages of
index is itself a remarkable production.

Dr. J. H. Trumbull delivered a long and scrupulously pre-
pared address upon the "American Language" before the
American Philological Association, Newport, July 13, 1875.

Das Ausland (November 9, 1874) has a carefully written
article on the linguistic researches of Dr. Hermann Berendt
in Central America.

Mr. Henry Hague has recently sent to the National Mu-
seum the instruments of a full band of music of the Tactic
Indians, among them the marimba, so graphically described
by Arthur Mo relet.

Franz Keller, in his accounts of his tour on the Amazon
and Madeira Rivers, describes the habit of eating clay prac-

clxvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

ticed among the natives of the forests in their border. They
are so addicted to it that the prospect of a speedy and mis-
erable death does not deter them. The negroes who work
the plantations are compelled to wear iron masks, and are
allowed to take them off only under the strictest surveil-
lance. Beasts (excepting the jaguar) and birds are affected
with a similar appetite. Hunters take advantage of the fact
by hiding on moonlight nights near one of these clay beds,
called barrieros, to which the deer and swine come to eat
earth, and the jaguar to secure his prey.

Charles Frederick Hartt, A.M., chief of the Brazilian geo-
logical survey, has published at Rio Janeiro " Amazonian
Tortoise Myths ;" among others, the old fable of the tortoise
and the hare appears as the tortoise and the deer.

In Bullet. Soc. d? Anthropologic (Paris, 1874, 2 e , p. 222)
Abbe Durand has a paper on the Sambagues of Brazil. In
the same number (p. 182) is a paper on the Apeicas.

The Hackluyt Society has published "The Captivity of
Hans Stade, of Hesse, A.D. 1547-1555, among the wild tribes
of Eastern Brazil," translated by Albert Fortal, Esq., of Rio
Janeiro, and annotated by Richard F. Burton.

Mr. Robert Ellis is the author of a work entitled " Peruvia
Scythica," the Quichua language of Pern, its derivation from
Central Asia, with the American languages in general, and
with the Turanian languages of the Old World, including
the Basque, the Lycian, and the pre-Aryan language of
Etruria (London, 1875, 8vo, 219 pp.).

Two individuals, Bartola and Maximo, who have been ex-
hibited in Europe and America since 1850 under the name
of Aztecs, having been presented recently to the Society of
Anthropology, Paris, by M. Topinard, a most animated and
exhaustive discussion ensued upon the descriptions which
have been given of them by Owen and others, and of the
subject of Microcephaly in general. Bull., 1875, p. 36.

Europe. Dr. Beddoe, in the report of the Belfast Meeting
of the British Association, has an abstract of his paper on
the modern ethnological migrations in the British Isles.

Attention is again called to M. Lagneau's paper before the
French Association, mentioned under a previous heading.

Herr Schaafhausen read before the German Anthropolog-
ical Society at Munich a paper on the early migrations of

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. clxvii

the Lapps, and Virchow also gave a resume of the Lapp con-
troversy. M. Venioukoff 's essay, to be hereafter mentioned,
treats of the same subject.

At the same meeting Virchow made a report of investiga-
tions concerning the color of the skin, hair, and eyes of the
children in public schools. Scholars examined, 760,000 ;
66f per cent, light-eyed, 33 J per cent, dark-eyed ; 54 per cent,
blonde-haired, 41 per cent, brown-haired, 5 per cent, black-
haired ; 85 per cent, light-skinned, 15 per cent, brunettes.

In the Gottingen section of the German Anthropological
Society, Professor Benfey discussed the language and cus-
toms of the Gypsies. Dr. Kopernicki reports his researches
on Bulgarian skulls in Archiv and Journal of the Anthropo-
logical Institute (Dec. 11, 1874).

Hyde Clarke read a paper on the Himalayan origin of
the Magyar and Finn languages ; and Dr. Sauerwein before
the German Anthropological Association one on the North-
ern Hungarian peoples.

Africa. At the International Geographical Congress, M.
Bourgeot attempted to show the affinity between the North
Africans and the Caribs. At the same meeting Conto Mu-
risculchi-Erizzo presented some locks of Akka hair. The
work of Dr. Gerhard Rohlfs, entitled "Quer durch Afrika,"
holds a prominent place among the ethnological works of
the year.

M. Bastian made before the German Association at Munich
a very interesting report of his journey to West Africa. See
also " Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Kiiste," etc.
(Jena, Vol. I., 1874 ; Vol. II., 1875), by the same author.

M. Achille Haffray sends to the Bulletin de la Societe de
Geographie (September, 1875) an account of his " Voyage en
Abyssinie a Zanzibar et au pays des Ouanika." Dr. Beren-
ger Feraud publishes in Revue d'Anthropologie (I., 1875) his
study of the Peuls of Senegambia.

The Hottentots and peoples of South Africa are discussed
in a communication made by A. Merensky before the Berlin
Anthropological Society (Aicsland, Nos. 34 and 35, 1875). Be-
fore the same meeting Herrn Bartells and Fritsch exhibited
a Basuto boy from the Transvaal Republic. The geograph-
ical expeditions of Stanley and Cameron promise a rich har-
vest of ethnological information.

clxviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

Asia. Dr. Ilalevy communicates to Ausland (November
10, 1874) an account of his journey through the liedschran ;
and Dr. Paul Langerhaus reported to the German Anthropo-
logical Society (1874) a trip among the Syrian Bedouins. lie
secured a number of photographs and skull measurements
from the noble tribes of Ad wan, Abbad, and Abudis, differ-
ing so materially from the Syrian Fellahin.

Before the British Association, Dr. Leitner described an
ethnological and linguistic tour of discovery through Dardi-
stan, the chief result being to establish the existence of lan-
guages contemporary with the Sanskrit.

In the report of the Belfast Meeting of Xhe British Associ-
ation (1874) is an abstract of a paper by Fred. Drew, F.G.S.,
on the distribution of the races of man inhabiting the Jum-
mir and Cashmere districts.

Sir Walter Elliott read a communication before the an-
thropological section at Bristol on the localities of the races
forming the present populations of India. The Koragars, a
leaf-wearing tribe on the west coast of India, were described
by J. Walhouse before the Anthropological Institute, Lon-
don.

In a very interesting communication upon the Negritos of
India, before the International Geographical Congress, Dr.
Hamy showed the presence of this race of oceanic Negroes
of short stature on the Gangetic peninsula. With great eru-
dition he proved that the Negritos ought to occupy a large
space of this territory, and that they have been little by lit-
tle dispersed and almost annihilated by their invaders. M.
Quatrefages followed on the same theme, drawing atten-
tion to the isolated groups of Negritos as distinguished from
the compact Papuans, pointing to the probability of their
having been the ancient inhabitants, and to their dispersion
by other races.

Ilerr Jagor reported to the German Anthropological Soci-
ety his ethnological tour in India, in which he had been lib-
erally patronized by the Prussian government. A table of
the races of Northern India is given by Louis Itousselet.

Mr. Bertram Ilartshorne read before the British Associa-
tion at Bristol a paper of the most thrilling anthropological
interest on the Weddas of Ceylon.

The Andamanese were the theme of a communication to

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. clxix.

the Anthropological Institute, on January 12, 1875, by Mr.
G. E. Dobson.

At the International Geographical Congress in Paris, two
long and able papers were read, the one by M. Venioukoff
upon the races of Asiatic Russia, the other by M. de Huj-
falvy upon the migrations of the Ouralo- Altaic races. Both
elicited considerable discussion, and may be regarded as
among the most able presented to the Congress. On motion
of M.Hujfalvy*the name Turanian was abandoned for Ouralo-
Altaic, as applied to non-Aryan races of Europe and the peo-
ples of Northern Asia.

An account of the Ainos was given to the German Anthro-
pological Society (1874) by Herr Pomoli, who considers them
the probable aborigines of Japan, reaching back to the cave-
bear period.

Arthur Conner described before the Royal Geographical
Society his journey to the interior of Formosa (Proc, Aug.,
1875). The account of the Japanese expedition to Formosa
has been published at Yeddo in English.

At the meeting of the Anthropological Society of Gottin-
gen (July 17, 1875), Dr. Von Ihering gave an account of teeth
mutilations, especially in Southeastern Asia.

Oceanica. Lieutenant Crespigny read a paper before the
Anthropological Institute (Journal, July, 1875) on the Mi-
lanows of Borneo. The same people are described by M.
Miklucho-Maklav.

Captain John C. Lawson (Anth. Inst., June 22, 1875) gives
an account of the Papuans. Virchow made a report on Pap-
uan skulls before the German Anthropological Society, 1874.

Australian ethnology is represented by the communication
of Mr. John Forrest to the Anthropological Institute (June
22, 1875) on " the Natives of Central and Western Austra-
lia." Volume X. of the " Transactions and Proceedings of the
Royal Society of Victoria" contains a paper by H. G. Pain on
the Decay of Aboriginal Art in Australia and Polynesia.

Before the British Association, Bristol, Rev. Wyatt Gill
c;ave an account of the Maories of New Zealand. " The
Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute,
1875," contains the following ethnological papers: The My-
thology and Traditions of the Maoris in New Zealand ; Notes
on an Ancient Native Burial-place near the Moa-bone Point ;

8

clxx GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

i
Notes on the Moa-hunter Encampment; On the Identity of
the Moa - hunters with the Present Maori Race ; On Maori
Traditions; On the Discovery of a Cut Stump of a Tree giv-
ing Evidence of the Existence of Man in New Zealand at or
before the Volcanic Era.

Dr. Barnard Davis contributed to the Dutch Academy of
Sciences an exceedingly valuable paper relative to the Tas-
manians. Their almost entire extinction within the last few
years makes their history a subject of painful Interest.

Dr. Rolleston, in his opening address before the Anthropo-
logical Department of Section D, British Association, spoke
in congratulatory terms of the work of Dr. Carl Meinicke,
"Die Inseln des Stillen Oceans" (Leipsic, 1875), and the article
of the Rev. J. W. Whitmee in the February number of The
Contemporary Review (1873) on the Ethnography of Polyne-
sia.

Rev. Wyatt Gill read a paper before the British Associa-
tion, Bristol, on the Traditions of the Hervey Islanders.

In La Nature (February 15, 1875) is an article by Dr. E.
Hamy, entitled " Les Polynesiens et leur Extinction." He
also read a paper before the Royal Geographical Society
(October 21,1875) on the results of his researches on the geo-
graphical distribution of the human race in East Melanesia.
On the subject of extinction compared with ancient times,
see Professor Rolleston's address before mentioned. The de-
population of Fiji by the measles is one of the latest disasters
of this class.

The artificial perforation of the skull among the South Sea'
Islanders is the subject of an article in the Bulletin cle la 3o-
ciete cV * Anthropologic (1874, p. 494), by A. Sanson.

The Journal of the Anthropological Institute (July 5, 1875)
gives an abstract of Edwin Reed's abbreviated translation of
Dr. Philippi's work on Easter Island, published in Santiago
in 1873.

No. 3 of Herbert Spencer's "Descriptive Sociology " is de-
voted to Types of Lowest Races, Negrito and Malayo-Poly-
nesian Races.

III. DISCUSSIONS OF PROBLEMS.

Anthropology is so dependent and so widely related that
the discussions which arise relative to it are almost innu-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. clxxi

rnerable. They comprehend the deduction of almost all sci-
ences. We can only indicate a few of them, and refer the
reader to those publications where he will find them more
fully treated.

Origin of Man. The greatest interest is springing up with
reference to Microcephaly in its relation to the origin of our
race. Dr. Samuel Pozzi {Rev. a" 1 Anth., II., 1875), following up
the investigations of Marshall (Phil. Trans.,Vo\. 154, XV., p.
501), of Bradley (Jour, of Anat. and Phys., 2d Ser., Vol. VI.,
p. 65), of Broadbent (id., III., p. 218), of Jensen (Archiv filr
Anth., IV.), of Vogt (Mem. de Flnst., Geneva, XL), of Schule
(Archiv, 1872, p. 432), and of Aeby (Archiv, 1874), gives a
summary of investigations, and his own conclusions on the
subject. We have further discussions before the French As-
sociation this year, elicited by a microcephal boy presented
to the meeting by Dr. Laennec on behalf of Dr. Petit, of the
Asylum at Nantes. Dr. Paul Topinard (Bull. Soc. d^Anth.,
1875, p. 36) makes a communication on the two microcephals
Maximo and Bartola. In the same publication (II., p. 164) we
have a paper on " L'Etude du cerveau des microcephales."
On the same subject we would mention Haeckel's "Anthropo-
genic," reviewed in Ausland (March 15, 1875).

In Nature (December 17, 1875) is a very interesting article
by E. B. Tylor on the relation of race to species, in which
are applied the dotted diagrams of Mr. Francis Galton.

Chronology. On the chronology of anthropology we
would draw attention to Herr Graf Wurmbrandt's speech on
the chronology of prehistoric discoveries before the German
Anthropological Society in 1874, followed by a lively discus-
sion ; to Professor Lauth's essays in Correspondenz-Blatt der
deutschen Gesellschaft filr Anthropologic, etc. (August, Sep-
tember, November, December, 1 874), " On the Definition of the
Boundaries of the Prehistoric ;" to the treatise of P. Cazalis
de Fondouce ("Materiaux," 11 and 12, 1874) on the hiatus be-
tween Paleolithic and Neolithic Times ; of Jacob Messikom-
mer (Ausland, April 12, 1875) on the Antiquity of Man; to
the discussion (Bull. Soc. cVAnth., 1875, II., p. 170) upon the
concurrence of bronze and stone implements in the cemetery
of Carandra ; to the paper of Fraas (Ger. Anth. Soc, 1874) on
the Tertiary Man (see also Correspondenz-Blatt, 1875, p. 16);
to that of G. de Mortillet (Rev. cVAnth., 1875, 1.) on prehis-

clxxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

toric study among the orthodox; to the letters of Schlier-
mann from the museums of Leyden, Copenhagen, Stockholm,
Lubeck, Berlin, etc., in Academy, Nos. 171, 173, 174, 176, 179,
ISO ; and to the work of James C. Southall on the "Recent
Orisrin of Man."

Physical Anthropology. Professor Rolleston, in his open-
ing address before the Anthropological Department of the
British Association, discussed the merits of Craniography in
deciding the question of race.

On the subject of Macrobians, the article of Sir Duncan
Gibb (Journ. Anth. Inst., 1875, p. 804) is to be consulted.

The work of M. Quatrefages on the " Fossil Races of Men "
is reviewed in the following publications : Comptes JRendus,
January 11, 1875 ; Ausland, March 15, 1875 ; and JRevue Sci-
entifique, January 23, 1875.

Psychical Anthropology. On this subject w T e would draw
attention to Herbert Spencer on the Comparative Psycholo-
gy of Man (Anth. Inst., June 22) ; C. Staniland Wake on the
Origin of the Moral Idea (Brit. Ass. Rep., 1874, p. 158) ; and
to Dr. Redner on the Psychological Discussion of Memory
(Munich Anth. Soc, Feb. 26, 1875).

Environment. M. Elisee Reclus's great work, "LaTerre et
les Hommes," is appearing in monthly parts. This learned
production will give the connections of geographical environ-
ment with the races of men who have inhabited the different
parts of the earth.

Professor Marsh has brought out a new edition of his
"Man and Nature."

A very interesting series of papers in Ausland (Jan. 4 to
Feb. 1) is devoted to the contribution of plants and animals
to Shemitic culture.

General. The paper of "W. D. Mackintosh on Anthropol-
ogy, Sociology, and Nationality, before the British Associa-
tion, and that of L. II. Morgan, before the American Associa-
tion, on the Progress of Culture, are worthy of study.

Culture. M. Pietrement, reviewing the treatise of M. San-
son, agrees with him that the bones found in great abundance
at Solutre are the remains of horses killed in the chase. In
this view he opposes M. Toussaint, who holds that the horse
was domesticated, and slaughtered for food and in sacrifice.

J. S. Pliene, before the British Association, read a paper on

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. clxxiii

the Age of Colossi, etc., with reference to America ; and in
"Materiaux" (1875, p. 394) is an article from Frederick VII.
of Denmark on the methods employed in constructing the
so-called " Halls of Giants," or dolmens.

Before the British Association, August 27, Mr. C. O. Groom
Napier read a paper on the " Localities whence tin and gold
were found." P. de Cessac is the author of a work, "L'Ambre
en France aux temps prehistoriques." F. W. Unger (Gottin-
gen, Proc. Anth. Soc, Pt. I.) has a paper on the origin and
working of bronze in Europe. G. de Mortillet read one (Fr.
Assoc, 1874) on the introduction of the working of bronze in
the West (" Materiaux," p. 459). M. A. Bertrand (Bull. Soc.
cPAnth.) read one on the Oriental origin of the working of
copper, tin, silver, iron, lead, etc. Wibel (Germ. Anth. Soc,

1874) read an essay on the chemical analysis of bronze.
Professor Drechsler made a communication on the begin-

ning of agriculture, before the Anthropological Society of
Gottingen.

"Materiaux" (February and March, 1875) has reproduced
some interesting old papers on " thunder-stones."

Professor Hartt has published at Rio Janeiro " Notes on
the Manufactory of Pottery among Savage Races," with ref-
erences to authorities. Perhaps the very best production on
the subject.

Colonel A. Lane Fox favors us with the Third Part of his
Catalogue on Early Modes of Navigation, tracing the devel-
opment of ship-forms. On the same subject attention is call-
ed to "History of Modern Shipping and Ancient Commerce,"
by W. S. C. Lindsay.

Professor Hartt has an article in the January Number
of Popular Science Monthly on the " Growth of the Idea
of Ornament."

On the subject of language, we call especial attention to
E. de Chossat on the classification of the Babylonian and
Ninevite cuneiform characters ; to Hyde Clarke (Brit. Ass.,

1875) on a Community of Aboriginal Names of Weapons in
Prehistoric Times ; to Dr. A.W. Bikkers on the Anthropolog-
ical Aspect of Linguistic Metaphor; to Professor Whitney on
the Life and Growth of Language; and to Dr. Hermann
Brunnhofer (Ausland, 1875, No. 31, p. 611) on the Voices of
Animals in Primitive Human Speech.

clxxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

On domestic culture the following references are valuable:
Anfiinge der Familie (Ausland, Feb. 1, 1875) ; Discussion be-
tween Sir J. Lubbock and L. H. Morgan on Systems of Con-
sanguinity {Nature, June 3d and Aug. 9th) ; On McLennan's
Theory of Primitive Marriage, by J. J. Murray (Rep. Brit.
Ass., 1874).

The science of social and public life is discussed by Dr. H.
K. von Giinther, on the Practice of Mummifying the Dead
(Munich Anth. Soc, April 13, 1875); by Sir Henry Maine,
on the Early History of Institutions ; by Dr. Bela Weiss,
on the Primitive Forms of Property (Ausland, No. 29, 1875,
p. 565).

Important discussions on ethics and religion are: "The
Origin of the Moral Idea," by C. S.Wake (Anth. Inst., June
25, 1875) ; "The Degeneracy of Man," by Rev. Jos. Edkins
(Rep. Brit. Assoc, 1874, p. 150) ; " Mythology," by J. Raines
(Anth. Inst., June 25, 1875); "Rhabdomaney and Beloman-
cy," by Miss A. W. Buckland (Brit. Assoc, 1875) ; " Cultur
und Religion," by H. K. Hg. Delff (Gotha, Perthes, 1875) ;
and "The Theistic Conception of the World," by the Rev.
B. F. Cocker, D.D. (New York, Harper & Bros., 1875).

IV. THE INSTRUMENTALITIES OF RESEARCH.

Herr von Ihering made a report to the German Anthropo-
logical Society, 1874, on new craniometrical and craniograph-
ical apparatus. On the same subject is an article by A. H.
Cohausen in Archiv fur Anthropologic, 1875, Vol. II., and one
by Paul Broca in Bulletin de la Societe d> Anthropologic, 1875,
pp. 337, 377.

The new code of symbols for archaeological maps, drawn
up by a committee of leading savants of Europe, was ex-
plained by Mr. John Evans before the British Association
at Bristol, and by Ernest Chantre before the French Associa-
tion ("Materiaux," liv. xi. Supplement, 1875).

The president, council, and fellows of the Royal Geograph-
ical Society have prepared a Manual of Arctic Geography and
Ethnology. A similar manual has been published by the
Board of Admiralty.

The Indian Bureau of the United States and the Smith-
sonian Institution have published a pamphlet of Ethnological
Directions, and circulars to Indian Agents and special col-
lectors for the Centennial Exposition.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. clxxv

Reports of the following meetings, at which anthropolog-
ical subjects were discussed, have reached us :

American Association for the Advancement of Science,
Detroit, Michigan, August 11-17.

The American Philological Association, Newport, July
13-15.
British Association at Bristol, August 25 to September 1.
French Association at Nantes, August 19.
The International Geographical Congress and Exposition
at Paris, August 15.

Congres International des Americanistes at Nancy, July
19-22.

The Archaeological Congress of France, Chalons, August
23-28.

The German Anthropological Society at Munich, August 9
-11.

At the American Association for the Advancement of Sci-
ence it was resolved to invite the next Congress of Prehis-
toric Archaeology to meet in the United States in 1876.

A notable event was the sale at auction of the entire li-
brary of Mr. Thomas W. Field, consisting wholly of Ameri-
canas.

The following is a list of journals devoted wholly or in
part to anthropology :
America: Contributions to Knowledge, Annual Report,
and Miscellaneous Collections of the Smith-
sonian Institution.
Annual Report of the Peabody Museum of

American Archaeology and Ethnology.
Journal of the American Ethnological Society.
Transactions of the American Association for

the Advancement of Science.
Transactions of the American Philological As-

CI

sociation.

Journal of the American Oriental Society.

Annual Report of the Indian Commissioner.

American Journal of Science and Art, Amer-
ican Naturalist, Popular Science Monthly, N.
Y. Tribune Extras, N. Y. Herald Letters from
New Mexico and the Stanley Expedition,
Harper's Magazine, and Scribner's Monthly.

clxxvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

Europe : f Journal of the Anthropological Institute of

Great Britain and Ireland.
Archaeologia, and Proceedings of the Society

of Antiquaries.
Archa3ologrical Journal.

cj

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great
Britain, and Transactions of the Society of
Biblical Archaeology, Geographical Magazine,
Nature, The Athenaeum, and The Academy.

Transactions of the Imperial Society of Friends
of Natural Science, Anthropology, and Eth-
nography, Moscow.

Proceedings of the Anthropological Society of
Sweden, Stockholm.

Notice sur les Musees archeologiques et ethno-
graphiques de Copenhagen.

Archiv fiir Anthropologic, und Correspondenz-
Blatt der Deutschen Gesellschaft fiir Anthro-
pologic, Ethnologic, und Urgeschichte.

Zeitschrif t fiir Ethnologie, und Verhandlungen
der Berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft.

Mittheilungen aus dem Gottinger Anthropolo-
gischen Vereine.

Mittheilungen der Anthropologischen Gesell-
schaft in Wien.

Zeitschrift der Morgenliindischen Gesellschaft.

Petermann's Mittheilungen, Gaea (the first quar-
ter entirely devoted to prehistoric research-
es), Globus, Das Ausland.

Bulletin de la Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris.

Materiaux pour 1'IIistoire Primitive et Natu-
relle de l'Hommc.

Revue d'Anthropologie.

Indicat. de l'Archeolosnie et du Collcctionneur.

CD

Journal Asiatique.

Bulletin de la Societe de Geographic de Paris.

La Nature, Le Tour du Monde, Revue Scienti-

fiquc.
Bulletino di Palctnologia Italiana.
Archivio per l'Antropologia e la Etnologia,

Organo dclla Societa Italiana di Antropolo-

gia e di Etnologia, Florence.

1

J

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. clxxvii
Europe : j Revista de Antropologia, Organo oficial de la

Sociedad Antvopologica Espanola.

Asia:

r Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.
Asiatic Researches, Bengal.
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bom-
bay and Ceylon.
Oceanica : Transactions of the New Zealand Institute.

ZOOLOGY.

Zoological explorations have been carried on during the
past year in connection with the various expeditions sent
out to observe the transit of Venus. Of these the labors of
the Rev. A. E. Eaton and Dr. Kidder, on Kurguelen Island,
have brought out the most interesting results.

During the past year also the zoology of the voyages of
the Erebus and Terror, which has been unfinished for twenty
years, has been completed.

In this country the corps of naturalists gathered at the
headquarters of the United States Fish Commission, located
for the summer season at Wood's Hole, have produced good
results; and the naturalists connected with Hayden's and also
Wheeler's exploring parties have met with excellent success.

Dr. Dohrn's zoological station at Naples was formally in-
augurated in April. This laboratory has been already used
by a number of English, Dutch, German, Russian, and Ital-
ian naturalists, and valuable researches published. A Rus-
sian naturalist of distinction, Miclucho-Maclay, has founded
a small zoological station near Singapore. While in this
country the Anderson School of Natural History has been
abandoned for want of funds, the idea of summer schools
for science-teachers has taken root, and during the past sum-
mer a successful session was held at Peoria, Illinois, and an-
other at Cleveland, Ohio, under the name of the " Kirtland
Summer School of Natural History."

Several new journals of especial value have been started
in Germany : one is the Morphologisches Jahrbuch, edited
by Professor Gegenbaur, of Heidelberg, and the Zeitschrift
fiir Anatomie unci Entwickelungs-Geschichte (Journal of
Anatomy and History of Development), edited by W. His
and W. Braune, Professors of Anatomy at the University of
Leipsic.

8*

clxxviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

Anions: new text-books, Professor Carus's "Ilandbuch der
Zoologie " is completed by the issue of the second part of
the first volume, containing a part of the Vertebrates, and
the Mollusca and Molluscoida. In this country two excellent
smaller text-books have appeared, Professor Tenney's " Ele-
ments of Zoology," and Professor Morse's " First Book of
Zoology." The " Arctic Manual " is full of new matter re-
lating to the natural history of Greenland.

"Life-histories of Animals, including Man," is the title of
an elementary manual of comparative embryology, by Dr.
A. S. Packard, Jr. It is reprinted in part from the Ameri-
can Naturalist.

The most valuable aid to the working zoologist is the
"Zoological Record," the volume for 1873 having appeared
during 1875.

Professor Huxley has proposed a new classification of the
Animal Kingdom, based on Haeckel's ; while Giard, of
France, has proposed some changes, the necessity of which
future studies must determine. For example, he unites the
annelides Sagitta and the Hotifera with the Mollusca. Dr.
Dohrn has suggested classifying the ascidians with the true
fishes, w T hile Giard thinks that they should be placed near
Amphioxus (the lancelet).

The year 1875 has been prolific in speculative essays result-
ing from embryological and histological studies in connection
with the evolution hypothesis, guesses being published which
it will take decades of work to prove or disprove.

Beginning now with the lowest forms of life, and ascend-
ing to the vertebrates, it is now thought by Professor Wy-
ville Thompson that the bodies occurring in Bathybius, and
also in Globigerina ooze, to which the names of "Coccoliths"
and " Rhabdoliths " have been applied, are probably either
alga? of a peculiar form, or else the reproductive gemmules
or sporangia of some minute plant.

From observations made by different exploring parties, it
seems to be a matter of fact that the Radiolaria or Foram-
inifera, as well as the diatoms, inhabit the ocean all the way
to the bottom; i. <?., that all the calcareous shells forming the
ooze at the bottom have not fallen down from the surface.
Several new American rhizopods have been described by
Professor Leidy.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. clxxix

Professor Allman has given in his anniversary address to
'the Linnsean Society a sketch of "Recent Progress in our
Knowledge of the Ciliate Infusoria." The same thina: in
briefer space has been attempted by Dr. Packard in the
American Naturalist for all the Protozoa, especial stress
being laid on their modes of reproduction.

Further studies on the Gregarince have been made by A.
Schneider. It is well known that these low Protozoa on ma-
turing encyst themselves and break up into a number of
spores (pseudonavicella3 and psorospermeaa). In two genera,
Gregarina and Stylorhynchus, Schneider has found a special
apparatus for the dissemination of these spores.

A detailed account of our North American sponges has
been begun by Professor Hyatt, and it is now hoped that
these neglected animals may be worked up. The first paper,
on the North American Poritidce, has an excellent plate, and
contains references to certain foreign species. Mr.N. J. Car-
ter has published a classification of the sponges, in which the
orders and families, and groups within families (not genera
and species, however), are characterized. The fresh -water
Spongilla has been found by Mr. Sorby to contain constitu-
ents, such as varieties of chlorophyl and xanthophyll and
lichnoxanthine, all of which occur in plants.

A gigantic hydroid polyp was dredged by the Challen-
ger Expedition, measuring seven feet four inches high, and
the crown of tentacles nine inches across from tip to tip of
the exj^anded (non-retractile) tentacles. It occurred at the
depth of 1875 fathoms, on the 17th of June, in latitude 34
37' north and longitude 140 32' west, and again, four feet
in height, at the enormous depth of four statute miles, on
the 5th of July, in latitude 37 41' north and longitude 177
4' west. The stem is enormously extensile, of a pale pink
color. It is either a species of Monocaulus or an allied form.
The proximal range of tentacles number about a hundred, and
these are about four inches long, and almost transparent
in life. The ovisacs are in close tufts of a maroon color,
just at the base of the proximal tentacles. " The walls of
the body-cavity," writes Professor Wyville Thompson, " were
yellowish, and seemed to contain some vertical rolls of gran-
ular matter, and the hypostome terminates in a fringe of
about forty - eight or fifty extensile tentacles around the

clxxx GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

mouth." Professor Allman adds " that the enormous depths
from which this colossal hydroid has been brought up should
favor the development of gigantic representatives of the di-
minutive forms of shallower zones, and that in the tenants
of these sunless regions of the sea we should find color not
less vivid than that of their light-loving relatives, are facts
full of significance." It is also to be noticed that the old
idea of pressure at great depths of the sea is entirely incor-
rect, as this animal is soft and jelly-like as in the Corymor-
pha of shoal water. No deep-water hydroid polyps, as
Allman remarks, produces medusae, not being able to endure,
" either before liberation from their parent hydroid, or for a
period however short in their free state, the darkness and
pressure and other conditions to which the dwellers in the
deep are exposed."

More light has been thrown on the distribution and younger
stages of the gigantic polyps Umbellularia by Dr. Willemoes-
Suhm of the Challenger part3 r . In the Antarctic Sea it has
occurred as low down as 2600 fathoms.

The growth of the common coral , Madrepor a cermcornis?
in the Florida Keys is estimated by Professor Joseph Le
Conte to be not more than three and a half to four inches
per annum.

Little has been done in the Echinoderms, except by Pro-
fessor Carpenter, who from his examination of the nervous
and generative systems of Comatida, thinks that we should
be justified in removing the Crinoids much farther from the
rest of the Echinoderms than before. In fact, he thinks
they have little in common beyond the calcareous network
of the skeleton. To show how abundantly these crinoids
may occur, Dr. Carpenter states that he had learned from a
trustworthy observer that after a recent hurricane in the
West Indies a vast number of Pentacrini had strewed the
shore of Barbadoes, in all stages of growth, from one inch
to eighteen inches in length ; but unfortunately no natu-
ralist was at hand to reap the rich harvest.

Further studies on the embryology of the Mollusca have
been made by M. Giard, Ussow, and Lankester. The two
latter have published their observations on the Cephalopods,
while the researches of Giard were made on Lamellaria per-
spicua, a gastropod. The development of Lamellaria requires

INDUSTKIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. clxxxi

two or three weeks, the eggs being laid in February and
March. The embryo passes through an invaginate-gastrula
condition, as in certain nudibranch mollusks {Dendronotus
and Goniodoris). The first embryonic, deciduous shell is of
a nautiloid form, and presents two dorsal and two lateral
keels, like the shell of Atlanta. The second shell is more
simple, like that of Carinaria, or of the embryos of the Nu-
dibranches. Giard claims that they have the same relations
to each other, and the same relative signification as the nau-
plian cuticle of the embryos of the Cirripedes and the cara-
pace of the Archizcea inclosed under that cuticle. He does
not think that the second shell is the origin of the calcare-
ous shell of the adult Lamellaria.

A beautiful memoir on the early stages of the Pteropods
and Heteropods, with admirable illustrations, has been pub-
lished by Fol in Lacaze-Duthiers's " Archives."

The life-history of certain mollusks, abstracted from the
works mostly of European observers, has been given by Dr.
Packard in the American Naturalist. Of the mode of de-
velopment of the oyster we have much new information by
Salensky (1874) and Gerbe (1875). It appears that while
some lamellibranch mollusks, such as the Unio, are bisexual,
the oyster is hermaphroditic. The eggs, which are yellow,
after leaving the ovary are retained among the gills. A
single oyster may lay 2,000,000 eggs. The spawning time
of the oyster in Europe is from June to September. During
their development the eggs are inclosed in a creamy slime,
growing darker as the "spat" (the term applied to the
young oyster) develops.

The course of development is this : After the segmen-
tation of the yolk, the germ divides into a clear peripheral
layer, and an opaque inner layer containing the yolk, and
representing the inner germinal layer. A few filaments or
large cilia arise on what is to form the " velum," or the future
head. The shell then begins to grow out at what is des-
tined to be the posterior end of the germ, and before the di-
gestive cavity arises. At this stage the two-layered germ
is said by Salensky to represent the "planula" of the
sponge. The digestive cavity is next formed (" gastrula "
stage), and the anus appears just behind the mouth, the ali-
mentary canal being bent at right angles. Meanwhile the

clxxxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

shell lias grown enough to cover half the embryo, which is
now in the so-called veliger state, the velum being com-
posed of two ciliated lobes in front of the mouth-opening.
The young oyster, as figured by Salensky, is directly com-
parable with the " veliger " or larva of the Cardium or
cockle-shell. Soon the shell covers the entire larva, only the
ciliated velum projecting out of an anterior end from be-
tween the shells. In this stage the larval oyster leaves the
mother, and swims around in the water, the cilia of tho
velum keeping up a lively rotary motion. In this stato
Lacaze-Duthiers observed it for forty-three days without
any striking change in form, except that the velum increased
in size, and the auditory vesicle appeared, containing several
otoliths, which kept up a rapid motion. But still the gills
and heart were wanting. Of its further early history we
know but little, except that it becomes fastened to some
rock and is incapable of motion. The oyster is said, by the
appearance of its shell, to be three years in attaining its full
growth, but this statement needs confirmation. M. Gerbe
has during the past year, according to La Revue Scientiftque,
cleared up some obscure points in the development of oys-
ters, but what they are is not stated.

The development of a gigantic cuttle-fish, of an unknown
species, has been worked out by Grenacher. The mass of
eggs was thirty inches long. After segmentation of the
yolk, unlike other cuttle-fishes known, the embryo assumes a
spherical form, with a band of cilia, and is thus like the cil-
iated embryos of certain lower mollusks. This spherical
stage is also remarkable for the early appearance of the
mantle, with the contractile pigment-cells (chromatophores).
The embryo soon elongates, the mantle grows, the eyes and
arms bud out, and the form of the adult is rapidly sketched
out.

Professor Hyatt has continued his studies on the Ammon-
ites, havincr described new forms of Jurassic and cretaceous
Ammonites collected in South America by Professors J. Or-
ton and C. F. Hartt ; and in another paper remarks on two
new genera, Agassiceras and Oxynoticeras. In a memoir on
the " Biological Relations of the Jurassic Ammonites," in
course of preparation, but of which an abstract has been
published, he traces the history of the evolution of the order

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. clxxxiii

of Ammonoids, showing that the characteristics of the first
three stages of the embryo were inherited from a very early
period. These were, first, the sac-like shell of the embryo,
containing the equally sac-like beginning of the siphon ;
second, the beginning of the true shell or apex, with its
nautilus- like septum and peculiar nautilus -like umbilicus;
third, the depressed and goniatite-like continuation of the
form of the shell, w T ith its accompanying goniatitic septa.
These, of course, represent only their most advanced stage
in the Ammonites proper of the Jura and Trias ; they are,
when first observed in the Silurian and Devonian, exceeding-
ly variable in the length of the periods and other important
characteristics, even between the varieties of different spe-
cies. They become invariable in the young as embryonic
characteristics only after the lapse of time represented by
the Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous periods. This va-
riability in the same species in the Silurian shows how re-
cently they were inherited, and their invariability in every
individual of the Jurassic shows the results of the lono; as;es
of inheritance through which the group has passed between
that period and the Silurian epoch.

A number of descriptive papers appear in the Proceedings
of the Zoological Society of London, and the German and
French conchological journals. Among these, Beddome's
"Descriptions of some new Operculated Land -Shells from
Southern India and Ceylon," Mr. Guppy's notes on West
Indian shells, and descriptions of new shells from Queens-
land, by Mr. Brazier, are noteworthy ; while in this country
the report on the mollusca of Hayden's Survey of the Ter-
ritories, by Mr. E. Ingersoll, gives new information relating
to the distribution of land-shells in Colorado. It seems that
no land-shells were found on the eastern slope of the Rocky
Mountains (though they do exist there). Altitude seemed
to have little influence upon their range so long as other
favorable conditions were present. The number of species
which occurred was very small, owing to the dryness of the
country. The Pupce were perhaps the most common forms,
increasing southward, while specimens of Vertigo Calif or-
nica and Pupilla alticola were numerous every where in the
mountains as high up as timber grows.

Our knowledge of the lower worms has been advanced by

clxxxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

the papers, finely illustrated, of Mr. Macintosh, upon the
structure of the Nemertian worms, while his work on the
worms of Great Britain has been issued by the Ray So-
ciety.

Dr. Ilabrecht has described a number of new genera and
species of these worms, and drawn attention to the minute
structure of the nerve-ganglia. Haemoglobin was detected
by means of the spectroscope in the nerve-tissue of two spe-
cies of Meckelia and in true red blood-disks of Drepanopho-
rus. He has also noticed the formation of an invasrinate
gastrula in the early stages of JSorlasia olivacea.

In last year's report we noticed the work of M. Villot on
the structure and development of the Hair-worm (Gordius).
He finds that the young Gordhis aquaticus first makes its
way into insect larvae, such as C/iirotiomus, and becomes
encysted ; after which it finds its way with its host into the
alimentary canal of fishes, where it is again encysted. It
escapes from this position in the spring.

Further researches on the ascidians by Ussow bring him
to the conclusion that the Tunicates are not Mollusca.
"Even," he says, "without taking into consideration the
modes of embryonal development, a comparison of the plan
of structure of the different mollusca with that of the Tuni-
cata suffices to refer the latter with more propriety to the
Vermes. The simple cardiac tube, the absence of the oesoph-
ageal ganglia and their commissure, the complete absence
of the foot, the curvatures of the intestinal canal directed
toward the heart, the existence of the outer mantle, and the
peculiarities of its structure, mode of formation, and chem-
ical constitution, the variability in the direction of the con-
tractions of the cardiac tube, etc., all draw a more or less
sharp boundary-line between the Tunicata and the Mollusca.
The Tunicata approach most closely to the Bryozoa." On
the other hand, he points out important characters in which
the Tunicates approach the worms ; while from the presence
of a chorda dorscdis, the type of development of the cen-
tral nervous system, and the relation of the alimentary tube
to the bronchial sac, the Tunicata are related to the Verte-
brata. Ussow goes so far as to adopt Oscar Schmidt's view,
according to which the Tunicates form a sj>ecial class of
Protovertebrata.

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. clxxxv

From his study of the curious worm Sagitta M. Giard
supports the prevalent view that it is a worm standing near-
er the annelids than any other animals. In his essay he
notes the characters these animals share with others leading
a pelagic life, which are as follows :

1. An extreme transparency of all the tissues, which ren-
ders the animal completely invisible, and enables it to es-
cape easily from its enemies. We observe it in the JYbcti-
lucce, the Siphonophora, the 3fedusce, the Ctenophora, the
Heteropod and Pteropod mollusks, the Salpce and Pyroso-
mata ; in Sagitta, Tomopteris, and Alciope, and, lastly, in
the Leptocephali, among fishes.

2. The unusual development of certain organs of sense, es-
pecially the eyes, and sometimes the auditory apparatus, as
in the Medusse and the Appendicularia, and in My sis.

3. The small size of the digestive tube.

4. A considerable development of the organs of genera-
tion, and great fecundity.

5. A great number of pelagic animals present the phenom-
ena of phosphorescence, such as the JVbctihtcce, many 3Iedusa?,
the JPyrosomata, and Phyllirhoe bucephala. This phosphor-
escence, which is manifested especially when the animals are
excited or alarmed, no doubt acts as a protection, and stoj^s
the pursuit of some enemies.

6. Their social life, as many of them swim in large masses.
M. Villot has made some observations on the migrations

and transformations of certain marine parasitic Trematodes.
Two very different Distomoe live in the intestine of the sea-
lark, a kind of plover. One is Distoma leptosomum, and the
other D. brachysomwn. These two parasites are found in
the larval state, still encysted, in the gizzard of the sea-lark ;
in the small intestine they are further developed, and when
they arrive in the rectum they have acquired their adult
size, and laid their eggs, which are ready to be expelled. As
to the tadpole -like young (cercarise) of these Distomas,
those of D. brachysomum become encysted in small isopod
crustaceans of the genus Anthuva ; while those of D. lepto-
somum are encysted in a small mollusk Serobicularia te-
nuis. The crustacean and mollusk both serve as food for the
sea-lark. Professor J. Leidy notices some parasitic worms
in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences at

clxxxvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

Philadelphia, while the anatomy of Tcenia mediocanellata
a tape-worm more common in Europe than T. solium is
discussed by Dr. Welch in the Quarterly Journal of Micro-
scopical Science.

A synopsis of North American fresh-water leeches, with
descriptions of some new species, with figures, has been pre-
pared by Professor A. E. Verrill for the Report of the United
States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries.

The Crustacea have been studied anatomically by Claus,
in an illustrated essay on the higher Copepoda, in Siebold
and Kolliker's Zeitschrift. The early condition of the nerv-
ous system of the king - crab [Limulus) has been described
by Dr. A. S. Packard. Instead of the cephalothoracic ganglia
being united to form a ring around the oesophagus, they
are in the larva separate, five pairs of large ganglia corre-
sponding to the five anterior pairs of limbs. The brain of
the king-crab differs remarkably from that of the normal
Crustacea i. e.,the lobster and crab in sending off no anten-
n al nerves,- but only two pairs of optic nerves, there being,
in fact, no antennoe in Limulus. While there is a general
analogy in the form of the anterior portion of the nervous
chord of Limulus to that of the spiders and scorpions, it
does not prove that the king-crab is an arachnid, for there
are other remarkable differences that forbid our placing the
king-crab among the arachnids, and they should be regarded
as very aberrant Crustacea. Packard also described certain
organs in Limulus as probably renal in their nature, and
perhaps homologous with the green glands of the normal
Crustacea.

Additional facts, regarding the metamorphoses of the
spiny lobster (Palinurus) of the Mediterranean have been
discovered by Gerbe. By his study of the Phyllosoma, or
larva state of the Palinurus, he concludes that in the higher
Crustacea the peripheral portion of the arterial system very-
slowly arises, and during the early stage of the change the
bloodvessels ramify among the tissues like the roots of a
plant.

In descriptive crustaceology we have a " Synopsis of
the Higher Fresh-Water Crustacea of the Northern United
States," by Professor S. I. Smith, containing full descrip-
tions of a number of interesting forms, including Palcemon

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. clxxxvii

ohionis, a shrimp used for food in Indiana, and another
shrimp Palcemonetes exilipes of Stimpson which occurs in
Lake Erie as well as South Carolina and the fresh -water
streams of Florida. The most remarkable shrimp-like form,
however, is the .Mysis relicta, first described by Loven, from
the inland lakes of Sweden. It occurs at various depths in
Lakes Superior and Michigan, where it forms a large part of
the food of the whitefish.

This Mysis is so closely allied to the Mysis oculata of
the northern and arctic seas, being regarded by some as a
simple variety, that its occurrence in these lakes so far from
the sea is, as Smith states, a fact of peculiar interest, which
goes far toward proving the marine origin of a part of the
fauna of our great lakes. Dr. Stimpson believed that the
great lakes had in recent (Quaternary) times been isolated
from the sea by a rise of land. Very probably, at the time
when the sea had access to these basins, the communication
was somewhat narrow and deep, and the influx of fresh
water from the surrounding country was sufficient to occupy
entirely the upper stratum, while the heavier sea-water re-
mained at the bottom.

After the basin had become separated from the ocean by
the rise of the land, the bottom water must have become
fresh by diffusion very slowly to allow of the gradual adap-
tation of the crustaceans to the change of element." Pro-
fessor Smith adds that at the time Lake Ontario was a part
of the great St. Law T rence valley sea, there was, very likely,
no insuperable barrier in the Niagara River to the upw T ard
migration of active swimming animals like Mysis, and some
of the inhabitants of the upper lakes may have reached their
present homes by this route during the northern movement
of the fauna at the close of the Quaternary epoch. " On the
other hand, Jfysis relicta, although originally derived from
the strictly marine species M. oculata, may have existed
long enough to have had the same history as some of the
strictly fresh-water species, known to be common to Northern
America and Northern Europe, since it has much the same
geographical distribution." Other Crustacea are mentioned
in Professor Smith's " Sketch of the Invertebrate Fauna of
Lake Superior," in the same report.

The habits of the blind crawfish of the Mammoth Cave have

clxxxviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

been studied by Mr. F. "W. Putnam. It takes almost no food,
though the eyed Species (Cambarns Bartoni) readily eats
any food offered to it. On being startled, the blind species
darts backward, extending its antenna?, and stands as if on
the alert for danger. Milk-white specimens, on changing
their skins, were afterward of the same color. It did not
change its color after shedding its shell twice, or after living
in full light of day, and often for hours in the sunshine, over
five months. On April 20 the same specimen cast its shell
for the second time, within three months of the time it last
moulted. During this period it did not feed more than three
or four times, and then only ate sparingly.

From observations made on the reproduction of lost parts
in the blind crawfish, it appears that the parts, such as the
legs and antennae, are not reproduced in perfection after one
moult, but that each time the shell is cast they are more
nearly perfect than before. In the instance observed it re-
quired three moultings before the great claw attained nearly
its full size, while an additional moult is necessary to perfect
the limb. The posterior legs, on the contrary, are perfected
in two moultings, and, in the case observed, in about five
months from the time they were lost. The antenna? are re-
produced more rapidly, and approach their full size in one
moulting. D urine: the five months the animal was in con-
finement it did not increase in size. Extremes of tempera-
ture did not affect the blind crawfish, as several specimens
were kept without harm for several days in a heated room,
and were exposed for weeks to such intense cold that the
water in the jars was frozen.

A number of new North American sow-bugs, or Oniscida,
are described by Stuxberg in the Proceedings of the Royal
Swedish Academy. The same author describes in the "An-
nals and Magazine of Natural History" a number of new
forms of IMhobius (a small centipede) from California and
Mexico.

The studies of the Russian zoologist Metschnikoff on the
embryology of the thousand-legs (or chilognathic Myriapods)
have been supplemented by a beautiful memoir on the early
history of Geophilus, a long, slender form allied to the centi-
pedes (Chilopoda). In this form, as in other Myriapods, the
yolk undergoes total segmentation, and the primitive band

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. clxxxix

surrounds one half of the yolk. In the next stage observed
the antennae and three pairs of jaws are developed (only two
in the thousand-legs). In a succeeding stage the primitive
band is much longer than before, and the head and tail ap-
proach nearer to each other, while there are now from forty-
four to forty-six body-segments, most of them bearing rudi-
mentary appendages, though there are none as yet on the
end of the body. In a succeeding stage the head is much
larger, the body longer and curved over the yolk, while the
eo-o--shell breaker is situated on the second maxillre. In a
following stage the body is still more elongated and the
joints of the antenna? appear. The embryo now slips out
of the split shell, the body being very long and cylindrical,
not yet flattened as in the adult animal.

The young Geophilus, and probably nearly all the centi-
pedes, undergoes no metamorphosis, being born with nearly
the full number of feet, while the young thousand-legs or
millepede has but three pairs when hatched. We now have,
thanks to Metschnikoff's other papers on the development
of the Chelifer and Scorpion, and to the researches of other
observers, quite full information regarding the life-histories
of the tracheate Arthropods, or insects.

Unusual activity has been shown by students of the spi-
ders both in Europe and this country. The writings of
Hentz have been collected and republished by the Boston
Society of Natural History, containing the text and plates
of his papers in the memoirs of that society, with the addi-
tion of several excellent plates drawn by Mr. J. H. Emerton,
with additional notes by him. A number of new species of
spiders from Southern Europe and North America, belonging
to the genus Erigone, are described by the Rev. O. P. Cam-
bridge. Dr. Thorell has described a number of new forms
from New Caledonia, Madagascar, and Reunion Islands. It
appears that the Nephila edalis Vinson, of New Caledonia,
a large spicier allied to our Nephila phimipes, whose hab-
its have been studied by Professor Wilder, is used by the
natives as an article of food, while in Madagascar JVephila
Madagascar iensis Vinson, is also eaten, "en l'accommodant
avec de l'huile ou de la graisse " (see Vinson, "Voyage a Mad-
agascar," p. 126). He also gives some notes on venomous spi-
ders. The so-called venomous spider of Madagascar, called

cxc GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

by the natives "(oka" or "fook," is thought by Vinson to
be probably harmless. Allusion is made by Thorell to the
supposed poisonous nature of the Lathrodectus Ciiracavien-
sis of Curayoa, South America. It is a congener of the poi-
sonous Lathrodectus of Southern Europe and the Southern
United States.

He has also published in the Proceedings of the Boston So-
ciety of Natural History a descriptive account of the spiders
of Labrador, based on specimens collected by Dr. A. S. Pack-
ard, Jr.

The spiders inhabiting the caves of Kentucky and adjoin-
ing states have been studied by Messrs. Packard and Emer-
ton, the latter affording descriptions and drawings of these
interesting forms, some of which are blind, or with defective
eyesight, and all more or less bleached. The two largest and
consequently most ancient caves, Mammoth and Wyandotte,
and in which the physical environment of the species is most
unvarying, have but one species each. In the smaller caverns
of Carter County, Kentucky, and the two Weyer's caves, the
number of species and variation in the individuals are great-
er than in the previously mentioned caves. In each set of
caves (Carter's and Weyer's) there are three species, to one
in Mammoth and Wyandotte caves. What constitutes the
food of these diminutive, weak, sedentary spiders it is diffi-
cult to conjecture, unless it be certain minute delicate mites
or young Poduras. They spin no web, except some of the
spiders of Weyer's Cave. The small flies {Sciara and Chl-
ronomus) are too large and bulky to be captured by them.
The probable insufficiency of food, as well as light, may ac-
count for their small size and feeble reproductive powers.
Mr. Emerton reports six species of cave spiders, all unde-
scribed except one.

A few mites are known to inhabit the sea ; the British
species have recently been described and figured by Mr. G.
S. Brady. Eleven species are now known to inhabit the
coast of Great Britain, a number of which were obtained by
the dredge, while one form (Ilalarachne halichceri) is para-
sitic in the posterior nares of a seal (Halichmrus gry2yhus).

Coming now to the winged insects, we can not say that
much has been done during 1875 in the study of their devel-
opment or anatomy. Unfortunately the mass of new species

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cxci

is so great, and the insect-fauna of the earth, even of the old-
er portions of the globe, as, for example, the older United
States, is so little known, that students are still, and will be
for years, busied with the merely preliminary work of de-
scriptive entomology.

As a contribution to animal psychology, Lubbock's second
paper on Bees, Wasps, and Ants claims notice. The merit
of this tract is that a daily journal of the doings of individ-
ual insects is given, from which the reader may judge as to
the correctness of the authors conclusions. He enumerates
a number of facts showing that " some bees, at any rate, do not
communicate with their sisters, even if they find an unten-
anted comb full of honey, which to them would be a perfect
Eldorado." So far from having been able to discover any
evidence of affection among them, " they appear to be thor-
oughly callous and utterly indifferent to one another." Their
alleged devotion to the queen is " of the most limited char-
acter." That bees can distinguish scents is certain. While
acknowledging the truth of Langstroth's statement that the
bees of one hive know each other, he thinks it is by the sense
of smell, and not by an act of the intellect. Bees differ as to
the facility with which they find their way about. He then
says, if " bees are to be credited with any moral feelings at
all, I fear the experience of all bee-keepers shows that they
have no conscientious scruples about robbing their weaker
brethren." Regarding the industry of ants, he gives quite
full statistics. He then gives some interesting experiments
showing that ants communicate news to each other.

Frequent reference is made by Lubbock to Forel's new
work, "Les Fourmis de la Suisse," a quarto work of 455 pages,
with two plates, published at Zurich in 1874. As this is the
most important w T ork on insects of the last two years, we
translate an abstract of its contents given by Blanchard in
La Revue Scieiitifique. The work is worthy to succeed that
of the author's fellow-countryman, Pierre Hiiber. After de-
scribing the species, the author considers the relations be-
tween the peculiarities of structure and the adaptation for
work or war. The descriptions are followed by anatomical
and physiological studies of different organs, accompanied
by interesting remarks concerning instinct and intelligence.
The doings of ants in rendering mutual services, or in carinsr

CXCil GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

for the larvae or pupae, have been the subject of curious ex-
periments. Forel, 'on soiling and deforming the silken co-
coons containing the pupse, always found the next morning
that the ants had restored them to their original form and
primitive whiteness. Hiiber spoke of the precision with which
a column of ants moved, and the perfect order the army ob-
served on a long march. Forel, however, shows that this
precision would be impossible unless the ants were careful to
preserve order. An ant carrying a heavy cocoon, wholly
taken up with its burden, is incapable of giving attention to
any thing else. Some wander, while others, better assured of
their course, <ro straight on. After much hesitation the wan-
derers again find the road, as shown by the readiness with
which they march on. This is regarded by Forel as an evi-
dence of an excellent memory.

Forel also studied the power of reproduction in the work-
ers. It is known that they sometimes lay eggs. He has
shown that by their whole structure such individuals are
intermediate between the fecundated females and the work-
ers or neuters. Their ovaries are sometimes completely,
sometimes only partially, developed.

He also affords a number of new observations on the arch-
itecture of these creatures. He finds that the nests of the
same species sometimes vary in their interiors. Forel doubts
whether certain ants live in the nests of others, as if parasitic.
He finds that two kinds of ants lodged in the same nest oc-
cupy separate apartments, with walls separating them. Fo-
rel has studied better than any one else the habits of the iso-
lated fecundated females. He has studied and created alli-
ances between the industrious species and those incapable of
rearing their young ; he has watched their battles, and also
noted the influence of temperature and of light on the move-
ments of the ants;

The functions of the anterior pair of ganglia, or so-called
brain, of a water-beetle {Dytiscus marginalis) have been
studied by Faivre. He believes that these ganglia preside
especially over the movements of deglutition ; that they de-
termine not only the contraction but the dilatation of the
pharyngeal sphincter-muscle, which reacts at the same time
Hirith the recurrent on the cardiac sphincter. The power pe^
culiar to this nerve-centre can be set in play by impressions

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cxciii

transmitted sometimes from behind forward, or the reverse.
He associates through the medium of the brain, to which are
attached communicating nerves, the acts of prehension and
of mastication to the swallowing of food and the passage
of food into the stomach and intestine. The subcesophageal
nanodia is the centre, under the influence of which it reacts
with the most energy. In brief, the frontal (supracesopha-
geal) ganglia, distinct by their special role from the other
nervous centres of the ganglionic chain, approach the former
(subcesophageal) by their essential functions as well as struct-
ure.

Further contributions to the relations of insects to plants
are to be found in Lubbock's " British Wild-flowers in Rela-
tion to Insects," and in Hermann Muller's papers in Nature.

The subject of hermaphroditism in the moths (or more
properly gynandromorphisni) has been discussed by Dr. A.
S. Packard, Jr., who describes and figures two gynandro-
morphs of CaUosamia Promethea. One is a female, with the
antenna and wings on the right side masculine, and the other
is a male, with the antenna and wings on the right side more
like the male than the female. These two cases may be re-
garded as extreme examples of what may be called periphe-
ral gynandromorphisni / namely, where the trunk (head, tho-
rax, and hind-body) are not affected, but only the append-
ages and scales, including the wings, feet, and antennae ; the
head and genitals not being affected. The least-marked ex-
ample of this sort is one described by Westwood, who states
that he had an orange-tip butterfly {Anthocaris cardamines)
which was female in every respect, except that on the tip of
one fore-wing were about a dozen of the bright orange scales
which characterize the male. It is not known that any Le-
pidoptera with the internal genital organs affected have
been examined, as the examples thus far have not been pre-^
served in alcohol. The best-defined cases of this sort are
those described in the honey-bee by Siebold. In these cases
the internal and external sexual organs are mixed together
much as the other external characters. The sting, with its
vesicle and gland, was present, though in a soft state, in the
drone, and in the female the ovaries and also spermaries were
present, though the ovaries contained no eggs. As to the
cause of so-called hermaphroditism, Siebold's explanation

9

cxciv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

that it is due to an imperfect fecundation of the ovum seems
most probable. Thdse cases seem to be paralleled by the oc-
currence of hybridity between two species, the result being
an irregular fusion of the characters of both species. Both
seem to indicate that sexual characters, as well as specific
characters, are determined at the time of impregnation.

Mr. Scudder's discovery of well-preserved remains of the
abdomen of a larval dragon-fly in the coal-measures of Cape
Breton sets back a long ways the existence of these insects,
the earliest remains heretofore known having occurred in the
Lias formation.

As a contribution to fossil entomology, the splendid mem-
oir of Mr. Scudder on fossil butterflies is noteworthy. Nine
well-authenticated species of fossil butterflies are now known,
all from the European tertiary formation, the earliest known
forms occurring in the lower beds. Three of these insects be-
long to the highest families of butterflies Nymphales four
to the Papilionidae, and two only to the Urbicola3 (Hesperi-
aus). The allies of four of these fossil butterflies now live
in the East Indies ; those of three in sub-tropical North
America, and one of them in the north temperate zone of
both Europe, Asia and America; and those of one in the
Mediterranean region. Three out of the four species whose
living allies are to be sought in the East Indies come from
the older deposits of Aix, and only one of the two remain-
ing Aix species shows special affinities to American types ;
" We thus find here, as among other insects and among the
plants, a growing likeness to American types as we pass up-
ward through the European tertiaries.

" The study of the floras of the European tertiaries has
proceeded so far that in most cases we are able to find, in
the very beds where the butterflies occur, plants which we
may reasonably judge to have formed the food of these in-
sects in their earlier stages. In but a single instance is the
family of plants upon which it was necessary, or almost
necessary, to suppose the caterpillar fed, entirely absent
from tertiary strata ; and since this family is the Cruciferae,
which in its very nature could scarcely have left a recogniz-
able trace of its presence, the exception has no force."

Professor Weismann's work on "Seasonal Dimorphism"
in butterflies shows that several so-called species are simply

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cxcv

varieties appearing at different parts of summer, either the
beofinninir or close, and that this variation does not occur in
the larva state, but is probably due to the different dura-
tions of the pupa state. He thinks they are the same in
effect with climatic varieties, and that they were induced
originally by changes in the climate of Europe during the
coming and going of the glacial period. The essay also
throws light on the origin of climatic varieties.

The effect of the glacial period on the distribution of in-
sects in North America is discussed by Mr. Grote. The tops
of the White Mountains and the Rocky Mountains in Colo-
rado offer us particular kinds of insects, living in an isolated
manner at the present day, and confined to their respective
localities. In order to find insects like them we have to ex-
plore the coast of Labrador, and the northern portions of the
North American continent in regions offering analogous con-
ditions of climate to those existing on the summits of these
mountains. The genera CEneis (Chionobas) and Brenthis
among the butterflies, and Anarta and Agrotis among the
moths, are represented by the same or similar species in all
of the above-mentioned localities. In the case of the White
Mountain butterfly, CEneis semidea, we have a form sustain-
ing itself in a very limited alpine area on the top of Mount
Washington.

The question comes up, with regard to the White Mount-
ain butterfly, as to the manner in which this species of
CEneis attained its present restricted geographical area.
Mr. Grote answers it by the action attendant on the decline
of the glacial period. Many of the features of the advance
of the glacial sheet were repeated in the reverse order on
the subsidence of the main ice-sheet or glacial sea. The
local glaciers appeared again, separate from the main bodies
of ice, and filled the valleys and mountain ravines, thus run-
ning at variance with the main body of the glacier, being
determined by local topography. A reversal of the temper-
ature shortened the winters and lengthened the summers.
Ice-loving insects, such as the White Mountain butterfly,
hung on the outskirts of the main ice-sheet, where they found
their fitting conditions of temperature and food. " The main
ice-sheet had pushed them insensibly before it ; and during
the continuance of the glacial period the geographical dis-

cxcvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

tribution of the genus CEneis had been changed from a high
northern region to one which may well have included por-
tions of the Southern States. And on its decline the ice-
sheet drew them back again after itself by easy stages ; yet
not all of them. Some of these butterflies strayed by the
way, detained by the physical nature of the country, and
destined to plant colonies apart from their companions."

When the main ice-sheet left the foot of the White Mount-
ains, some of these CEneis butterflies were left behind. " At
a height of from 5600 to 6200 feet above the level of the
sea, and a mean temperature of about 48 degrees during a
short summer, the White Mountain butterflies {CEneis semi-
dea) yet enjoy a climate like that of Labrador within the
limits of New Hampshire. And in the case of moths an
analogous state of things exists. The species Anarta mela-
nopa is found on Mount Washington, the Rocky Mountains,
and Labrador. Agrotis Islandica is found in Iceland, Lab-
rador, the White Mountains, and perhaps in Colorado. As
on islands in the air, these insects have been left by the re-
tiring ice-flood during the opening of the Quaternary."

Some studies by Mr. W. H. Edwards lead him to differ
from Mr. Scudder's conclusions in relation to the two
broods, vernal and aestival, of two butterflies, Argynnis
(Brenthis) myrina and bellona, which were published in the
American Naturalist in 1872. Mr. Edwards finds that in
Argynnis myrina the butterfly of the fall brood emerges
from the chrysalis about the 1st of September, lays eggs on
or before the 15th, the larvae hatch between the 20th and the
24th, and go at once into hibernation, to awake in May, and
reach the chrysalis state about the middle of June, and the
butterfly state about the 25th of June. If any of the sum-
mer brood of larvae hibernate after their third moult (a
fact not established), then the larvae of both broods would
awake at the same time and become butterflies at the same
time, making the summer brood. It is to be observed that
the several stages of the same brood of larvae do not occur
in exactly the same periods of time. From eggs laid on the
same day, by the same female, some of the larvae hatched
will reach the chrysalis state several days before others. In
the larger species of Argynnis there will be such a differ-
ence, amounting to two or three weeks. Therefore some of

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cxcvii

the larvae which hibernate at the third moult may be re-
tarded so that their butterflies shall emerge contempora-
neously with those which proceed from the larvae that hi-
bernate as soon as they leave the egg. The case is par-
allel with that of ' Phyciodes nycteis, and with that of Apatura
celtis, both double-brooded species, and both disclosing larvae
from the summer brood which hibernate when half grown,
while a part of the brood go on to chrysalis and give the fall
brood of butterflies, these again producing larvae which also
hibernate. (In both the last hibernation begins after the larva
is half grown i. e., after the third moult in nycteis, and after
the second in celtis.) Mr. Edwards claims that Mr. Scudder
has made a hypothetical case which is precisely the actual case
that he (Edwards) has above indicated. Scudder's example
is as follows, to use his own words: "Should the season be
so long that the second brood coidd lay eggs, the caterpillars
would then be forced to hibernate as those of the aestival
series, and become members of that series the next year.
Thus the vernal series would continually feed the aestival."
Moreover, in no species do the several preparatory stages of
its members run even. On the contrary, in any, whether
single or double brooded, there will be found by different
females eggs freshly laid, eggs ready to hatch, young larvae
and mature larvae, all at the same time. By this means
there is kept up for a long period, often for weeks, a suc-
cession of newly emerged butterflies of the same brood, and
the newer and older are constantly mating. On one day
in September of last year he cut a branch of wild senna
(Cassia), on which at the moment were newly laid eggs of
Terias nicippe, larvae in every stage of growth, and a but-
terfly of the same species just emerged, and still resting on
the empty shell of its chrysalis.

Our knowledge of the transformations of the Lepidoptera
has been increased by an illustrated account by Mr. Scudder
of the life-history of Eumceus atala, a butterfly which feeds
on the Zamia in Florida. Several Limacodes larvae are de-
scribed by Mr. Wetherby, and other larvae are described in
the Canadian Entomologist, and by Mr. Henry Edwards in
the Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences.

An interesting contribution to our knowledge of the in-
sect fauna of islands is afforded by the Rev. A. E. Eaton's

cxcviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

researches on Kerguelen Island, while attached as naturalist
to the Transit of Venus Expedition. Nearly all the insects
were remarkable for being either wingless or with very
short wings. Of the flies (Diptera), one species had neither
wings nor halteres. Dr. J. L. Le Conte, in his presidential
address before the American Association, brings forward
some valuable facts in the geographical distribution of in-
sects in North America.

In descriptive entomology there are the usual papers in
journals and transactions. The Canadian Entomologist con-
tains descriptions of North American insects, while Psyche,
published by the Cambridge Entomological Club, contains
an elaborate bibliographical record, in which a list is given
of all writings upon entomology published in North Amer-
ica, and of all foreign writings upon North American ento-
mology, and a brief notice of the contents of each.

Especially worthy of notice are descriptions and synonym-
ical catalogues by Hagen, Scudder, Ostensacken, Grote,
Morrison, Chambers, H. Edwards, and others ; while in the
Proceedings of the Zoological Society are handsomely il-
lustrated papers by Butler. Professor Zeller continues in
the Transactions of the Vienna Botanical and Zoological
Society his elaborate descriptions of North American
moths. In economical entomology the report of Mr. Riley
is replete with useful information, particularly regarding the
destructive grasshopper and the grape Phylloxera.

Coming now to the Vertebrates, we learn that M. Gerbe
has studied in the fish-parks at Concarneau the embryology
of the rays, embracing all the modifications that the eggs
of these fishes undergo from the time they enter the oviduct
to that of their exclusion. The swimming-bladder of fishes
has been studied by M. Moreau from the side of experi-
mental physiology. He concludes that it is a hydrostatic
organ, and not an organ of locomotion.

In a work on the origin of the vertebrates, Dr. Dohrn in-
dulges in some speculations as to the ancestry of these ani-
mals. His embryological investigations lead him to seek
for the probable ancestors of the vertebrates among the
Arthropods (crustacea and insects), rather than the Tunicates
or Ascidians ; and to revert to the views of the elder St. Ili-
lairc, who described insects as vertebrates which walk with

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cxcix

their backs downward, rather than to those of Kowalevsky
and others, who trace the line through the Ascidians and the
lancelet. So far from being the representative of the orig-
inal vertebrates, the Amphioxus is regarded by Dr. Dohrn
as a degenerate descendant of the cyclostomous fishes, and
the so-called larvse of the Ascidians are the result of a still
longer-continued process of degradation.

On account of these and other speculations, renewed at-
tention is being paid to a study of the embryology and
anatomy of Amphioxus, the lancelet. Mr. Balfour considers
that it is not necessary to conclude that Amphioxus itself
was the ancestor of the vertebrates, but merely that the ear-
liest stages of development of this supposed vertebrate an-
cestor were similar to those of Amphioxus. The egg of
Amphioxus differs from that of other vertebrate animals in
having less food-material or yolk, and Balfour thinks that
this accounts for the differences in the early stages of the
embryo. Still he thinks that all the modes of development
found in the higher vertebrates are to be looked upon as
modifications of that of Amphioxus. One common feature
which appears prominently in reviewing the embryology of
vertebrates as a whole is the derivation of the middle germ-
layer (mesoblast) from the third or inner layer (hypoblast),
though it should be stated that so high an authority as
Kolliker thinks that the middle layer is derived from the
outer one. Among the invertebrates, however, the middle
germ-layer is derived from the inner germ-layer.

Professor Huxley publishes meanwhile a note upon the
" brain and skull " of Amphioxus. By reason of the sup-
posed absence of renal organs, and of any proper skull and
brain, Agassiz was led to separate the lancelet from all other
fishes ; and Haeckel, going farther, made a distinct division
of the Vertebrata (Acrania) for its reception; while Semper,
in a lately published paper, separates it entirely from the
vertebrates. Huxley now describes what he believes to be
the representative of the ducts of the Wolffian bodies, or
"primordial kidneys" of the higher vertebrates, in Amphi-
oxus, and he also endeavors to point out that, although Am*
phioxus has no completely differentiated brain or skull,
"yet it possesses very well-marked and relatively large di-
visions of the cerebro-spinal nervous axis and of the spinal

CC GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

column, which answer to the encephalon (brain) and the
cranium of the higher Vertebrata." Professor Ray Lankes-
ter also contributes an important paper on the anatomy and
embryology ofAmphioxus as compared with the higher fishes.

Some important notes on the grayling of North America,
by James W. Milner, and on the natural history of the gou~
rami, by Dr. T. Gill, are contained in the report of the
United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries.

Some new fossil fishes from the Devonian and carbonifer-
ous rocks of Ohio have been described by Professor J. S. New-
berry. Of these the most important discovery was nearly
the entire skeleton of Dinichthys Terrellii, the largest of all
the old armor-plated Ganoids. In another species (D. Hert-
zeri), the maxillaries and mandibles are set with teeth instead
of being sharp-edged. Professor B. G. Wilder also presented
a paper to the American Association for the Advancement of
Science, entitled " Notes on the American Ganoids " (Amia,
Lepidosteus, Acipenser, and Polyodon).

A revised list of the fishes of Greenland, by Dr. Liitken,
is given in the appendix to the English "Arctic Manual."

The habits of the pine snake, by Rev. S. Lockw T ood, are de-
scribed in the American Naturalist. A new species of ser-
pent, belonging to an undescribed genus, collected by Lieu-
tenant Wheeler's expedition in Arizona, has been described
by Professor Cope under the name of Monopoma rufipuncta-
tum. The rostral shield of this new genus resembles that of
Phimothyra, and the lateral head-shields those of Cyclophis
cestivus. It is, however, more like PJutcenia, the common
garter-snake, in general character.

It is asserted by M. Gaudry that true-tailed Batrachians,
with affinities to the modern Salamanders, existed in Permian
rocks in France. Interesting discoveries of fossil Batrachia
in the coal-measures of Ohio have been brought out by the
geological survey of that state under the direction of Pro-
fessor Newberry. The number of extinct forms have been
thus increased to thirty-three. Professor Cope, who has
studied the material, describes a new genus and species un-
der the name of Pleuropteryx clavatus. It is remarkable for
the structure of its ribs. Each of these presents a wide,
thin ala on its posterior face, which is abruptly discontinued
below. The shaft of the rib is short, and enlarged dis-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cci

tally where it is hollow and truncate. The vertebrae are as
large as those of the anaconda. Another genus exhibits
two strata of chevrons in an armature of ventral rods, the
angle of the upper having an opposite direction to that of
the lower. The gular scutoa are smooth. It was named
Hyphasma Icevis. An interesting addition to the fauna was
stated to be a new species of the horned genus Geraterpeton
of Huxley. The head is relatively large, and covered with
reticulate ridges separated by rows of impressed dots. The
horns are long, stout, and incurved. It is called C. puncto-
lineatum.

In the course of some remarks on the Batrachians and
Reptiles of Florida, Professor Cope stated that this state
formed a distinct subdivision of the Austro-Riparian region
(see Gray's Atlas of the United States, 1873, for a review of
the geographical distribution), the evidence furnished by the
lower vertebrates confirming that derived from the higher
vertebrata and the plants. There are fifteen species of Ba-
trachia and Reptilia not found in any other part of North
America ; three of these occur in Cuba, but none elsewhere.
He states that Mr. Meek had recently sent to the museum
of the Smithsonian Institution an Elaps distans a poison-
ous snake which had been known previously from the So-
noran region only. This discovery may be associated with
that of the Western burrowing owl in Florida, and the fact
that the Floridan Ophibolus getulus presents the same num-
ber of rows of scales as the black and white Ophiboli of the
Sonoran region.

The first fossils found (by Professor Cope while attached
to Wheeler's survey) in the "trias" of the Rocky Mount-
ains are those of fishes and reptiles. The fishes are repre-
sented by scales of small species, which are abundant in the
coprolites of the reptiles ; the latter represent the three or-
ders of Crocodiles, Dinosauria, and apparently of Sauropte-
rygia. The dinosaurian order is represented by a part of
the crown of a tooth of a species of large size, of the general
character of Lcdaps. Both faces are convex, the one more
so than the other, and the long axis of the crown is curved
toward the less convex side. Both cutting-edges are sharply
and closely crenate denticulate, as in Lcelaps, Aublysodon,
etc. ; otherwise the enamel is perfectly smooth.

9*

ccii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

The structure of the central nervous system of the turtles
and of the axolotl has been elucidated by Dr. Stieda in
Siebold and Kolliker's Zeitschrift.

The Crocodilia are divided by Professor Huxley into three
sub-orders, as follows: 1. JParasuchia, containing the genera
Stagonolepis and Belodon ; 2. Mesosuchia, with the genera
Steneosaurus, Pelagosaurus, Teleosaurus, Teleidosaurus, 3fe-
triorhynchus ( Goniopholis f Pholidosaurus ?) ; 3. Eu&uchia
(Thoracosawus, IIolops, and recent forms).

In last year's Record we announced the discovery of the
crocodile by the late Professor Wyman in Florida. During
the past year M. Hornaday has published an article on this
animal in the American Naturalist^ with figures of the head
and skull. A large male measured fourteen feet in length ;
its mate, a female, ten feet eight inches. It is regarded by
the author as a new species, for which he proposes the name
Crocodllus Floridanns.

Another link in the chain of evidence showing the affin-
ities of the birds with the reptiles a subject engrossing the
attention of comparative anatomists is afforded by fresh
studies by Professor Morse on the "intermedium" bone of
birds. Last year he found this bone in the tern. During
the present year he ascertained the presence of this bone in
the petrel, sea-pigeon, and eider-duck. This additional evi-
dence showed beyond question the existence of four tarsal
bones in birds, as well as four carpal ones. In making these
investigations he had also discovered embryo claws on two of
the fingers of the wing the index and middle finger. Here-
tofore in the adult bird a single claw only had occurred in a
few species, such as the Syrian blackbird, spur-winged goose,
knob - winged dove, jacana, mound bird, and a few others,
and in these cases it occurred either on the index or middle
finger, or on the radial side of the metacarpus. All these
facts, he claims, lend additional proof of the reptilian affin-
ities of birds.

By far the most important discovery proving the reptilian
affinities of birds was the discovery in 1872, by Professor
Marsh, of birds with veritable teeth in sockets in the jaws,
much as in reptiles. Professor Marsh now fully describes and
figures these bird-skulls and teeth, and proposes the term
Odontomithes for the new sub-class, with two orders : Ich-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. cciii

thyornithes (with the genera Ichthyornis and Apatomis) and
OdontolccB, containing the genus Hesperomis. In comparing
the two genera, Ichthyornis and Hesperomis^ the author calls
attention to the remarkable combinations of characters in
each genus. The former has teeth in distinct sockets, with
biconcave vertebrae ; while the latter has teeth in grooves,
and yet has vertebrae similar to those of modern birds. They
all occurred in the upper cretaceous beds of New Jersey and
Kansas. The remains preserved of Hesperomis regalis show
that this species was larger than any known aquatic bird,
the length from the apex of the bill to the end of the toes
being between five and six feet. The rudimentary wings
prove that flight was impossible, while the powerful swim-
ming legs and feet were peculiarly adapted to rapid motion
through the water. The tail appears to have been much
expanded horizontally, as in the beaver, and doubtless was
an efficient aid in diving, perhaps compensating in part for
want of wings, which the penguins use with so much effect
in swimming under water. That Hesperomis was carnivo-
rous is clearly proved by its teeth, and its food was probably
fishes.

The coloring matter of the shell of the eg^gjs of birds has
been studied by Mr. Sorby with the solar spectroscope. He
finds that their different tints are due to a variable mixture
of seven well-marked coloring matters. Hitherto the greater
part of these had not been found elsewhere. The principal
red coloring matter was connected with the haemoglobin of
blood, and the two blue coloring matters were probably re-
lated to bile pigments ; but in both cases it was only a chem-
ical and physical relationship, and the individual substances
were quite distinct, and it seemed as though they were spe-
cial secretions. There appears to be no simple connec-
tion between the production of these various egg-pigments
and the general organization of the birds, unless it were in
the case of the Tinamous, in the shells of the eggs of many
species of which occurs an orange-red substance not met
w T ith in any other eggs, unless it were in those of some spe-
cies of cassowary.

A fossil bird belonging to the Vultures has been discov-
ered by Professor Cope, and named Vultur umbrosus. It
was about as large as the "king vulture" {Cathartes papa)

cciv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

of Mexico. The true vultures do not exist at present in the
Western hemisphere, and the present determination adds
one more Old World type to the extinct fauna of the United
States. The genus Vultur is now associated in Africa and
India with Rhinoceros, camels, horses, etc., as in the period
of the late tertiary in New Mexico.

A new work on the locomotive apparatus of birds, by M.
Alix, contains a careful study of the skeleton and muscular
system.

The subject of instinct in birds and mammals has again
been discussed by Mr. Spalding in Nature. He claims that
the instincts of animals appear and disappear in such season-
able correspondence with their own wants and the wants
of their offspring as to be a standing subject of wonder.
They have by no means the fixed and unalterable character
by which some would distinguish them from the higher fac-
ulties of the human race. It is a common practice to hatch
duck's eggs under a hen, though in such cases the hen has
to sit a week longer than on her own eggs. Mr. Spalding
tried an experiment to ascertain how far the time of setting
could be interfered with in the opposite direction. Two
hens became broody on the same day, and he set them on
dummies. On the third day he put two chicks a day old to
one of the hens. She pecked at them once or twice, seemed
rather fidgety, then took to them, called them to her, and
entered on all the cares of a mother. The other hen was
similarly tried, but with a very different result. She pecked
at the chickens viciously, and both that day and the next
stubbornly refused to have any thing to do with them.
Birds, he maintains, do not learn to fly. On shutting up
five unfledged swallows, they flew when liberated as well as
the old ones. Such he found to be the case with titmice,
tomtits, and wrens. With man, as in the lower animals,
Spalding believes that the progress of the infant is but the
unfolding of inherited powers. " With wings there comes
to the bird the power to use them ; and why should we be-
lieve that because the human infant is born without teeth, it
should, when they do make their appearance, have to dis-
cover their use by a series of happy accidents?" In com-
mon with other evolutionists, Spalding believes that " in-
stinct in the present generation may be regarded as the

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. ccv

product of the accumulated experiences of past genera-
tions."

A specimen of an almost complete Solitaire (Pezophaps
solitarius) was found, with a second, in the island of Rod-
riguez by Mr. J. Caldwells. These specimens, together with
that procured by Mr. Slater, one of the naturalists of the
Venus Transit Expedition, will settle some points in the os-
teology of the peculiar extinct Columbine birds, of which so
many separate bones have been obtained.

New light has been thrown on the mode of occurrence in
New Zealand of the bones of the moa (Dinomis) by Dr. Hec-
tor. He demonstrates most conclusively, according to Nature^
that the Maoris told the Europeans of their existence. He be-
lieved that there was no hope of ever finding the birds alive,
for he had been over the whole of the islands very thoroughly
without seeing them. He thought that these gigantic birds
lived in the open and low scrub, in which they could walk,
not among the forests. In all this region, within his own
memory, the moa bones were extremely abundant in the
South Island, all over the ground. In the enormous extent of
subalpine country in the South Island, which was covered
by only a light vegetation, large quantities of well-preserved
moa remains have been recently found, associated with the
remains of the natives. It appeared to him that the natives
had pressed up the country for the purpose of capturing, kill-
ing, and eating the moas ; and as the natives could not follow
them through the sharp bayonet-grass and other underscrub,
they drove them together and destroyed them by fire. Moa
remains also occur in caves, turbary deposits, and dried-up
Swamps; the bones got out of a swamp remains indicating
at least 1700 individuals. He did not think that moa bones
occur in the tertiary deposits, but a true bird-bone, which had
been found in such deposits in New Zealand, he was inclined
to think belonged to a gigantic extinct penguin. A new con-
tribution to the anatomy of the gigantic birds of New Zea-
land, by Professor Owen, in the Transactions of the Zoolog-
ical Society, contains a restoration of the skeleton of Cnemi-
ornis calcitrans. It was a goose-like bird as large as a cas-
sowary. Those gigantic birds, the cassowaries, are found to
be more numerous in species than formerly supposed. A
short .time ago. but one cassowary was recognized by natural-

ccvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

ists. Recent expeditions into the less-known portions of
New Guinea and adjoining islands have furnished nine forms
in all, of which six are said by Mr. Sclater to be now living in
the Gardens of the Zoological Society of London. Mr. Sclater
gives in Nature a brief synoptical table of the genus. The
memoir in full, with colored illustrations, appears in the Trans-
actions of the Zoological Society of London.

Some notes on birds which have been found in Greenland
are communicated to the Ibis by Professor Newton. They
will prove of much interest to American ornithologists. A
new wren has been found in Florida by Mr. C. J. Maynard,
w T hich is described by Mr. Ridgway in the American Natural-
ist under the name of Thryothorus Ludovieianus. In color-
ation this strongly marked form closely resembles T. Berlan~
clieri of the lower Rio Grande, but its size is much greater
than even the most northern examples of Ludovieianus
proper, while Berlandieri is smaller. Says Mr. Ridgway,
" It is very remarkable that the southern form of this bird
should be so much larger than the northern one, in direct
opposition to a recognized law of climatic variation; but we
have another case of this same exception to the rule in Ca-
therpes Jlexieanus, and its northern race, var. consjyersus"
These examples probably justify the suggestion made by
Ridgway that an exception to the rule of decrease in size
to the southward, in resident species, may be made in case of
families or groups of families, which have in temperate lati-
tudes only outlying genera or species, the increase in this
case being to the southward, or toward the region in which
the family or group is most highly developed.

Comparative and detailed descriptions of JSTisus Cooperi
and N. Gundlachi are offered by Mr. Ridgway, who also
publishes in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia a monographic account of the Bu-
teonine subgenus Craxirex.

A list of the birds of the Philippine Islands, numbering
ninety-six species, and greatly extending our knowledge of
the birds of the East Indies, is contributed by Viscount
Walden to the Transactions of the Zoological Society of
London. It is illustrated by eleven plates.

Some unpublished drawings of the Dodo and other extinct
birds of Mauritius were exhibited by Professor Newton at a

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. ccvii

meeting of the Zoological Society of London. They are con-
tained in the original manuscript of a journal kept during
the voyage of a Dutchman to Mauritius in 1601-1602.
Among the birds also represented were Aphanapteryx brcecki
and Psittacus mauritiamis. The figures of the Dodo, rough
as they are, "must have been drawn by no ordinary hand,
and evidently from the life. The various attitudes in which
the bird is represented certainly assist us in forming a con-
ception of what it must have been like."

Notes on Falco labradorus and other specks, by H. G.
Dresser ; on Peruvian birds by Mr. Sclater, and other pa-
pers, anatomical and descriptive, by Rowley, Ganod, Mivart,
Sharpe, Whiteley, Layard, Salvin, Sclater, and others, occur
in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society.

Contributions to the anatomy of the mammals are con-
tained in an elaborate memoir on the Daman by M. George,
published with a number of plates in the Annates des /Sci-
ences Naturelles. Professor W. S. Barnard has compared the
muscles of man with those of the higher apes, showing the
points of similarity as well as of difference. A point made in
this paper was the statement that one of the buttock muscles
supposed to be peculiar to the higher apes, distinguishing
them from man, really existed in the human body, and in a
similar position. It was shown that the muscle thus de-
scribed by Traill, and afterward by Wilder, as existing in the
chimpanzee, and by Owen and Bischoff in the orang, and by
Coues in the opossum, is also found in man, and offers no
distinction in this respect. His investigations tend to prove
that all the muscles possessed by man can be traced back-
ward in the lower form of animals, through the apes to the
lemuroids.

The indications of descent exhibited by North American
Tertiary mammals have been shown by Professor Cope in the
gradual development from one form to another by changes
in the foot bones through a long series, beginning with the
extinct Tertiary mammals, and ending with those of the pres-
ent day. A similar process of change was traced in the
teeth of animals, the simpler forms of teeth in the Eocene
formation being a crown with four tubercles. The human
skeleton, he declares, retains many more ancient types than
other mammalia.

ccviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

The extensive and very fully illustrated work by Professor
Cope, entitled "The Vertebrata of the Cretaceous Forma-
tions of the West," published in the Reports of Hayden's
United States Geological Survey of the Territories, is re-
plete with new data regarding the wonderful fauna which in-
habited the ancient lakes of the far West. After giving in
an introduction his views on the significance of paleontolog-
ical science, he divides the work into three parts. The first
part is devoted to the classification and distribution of the
Cretaceous deposits of the West ; the second part contains
descriptions of the Cretaceous Vertebrata of the West ; while
the third part is occupied with a synopsis of the known Cre-
taceous Vertebrata of North America. The work is illus-
trated with fifty-seven lithographic plates.

It has been stated, says Cope in this work, that the life of
the present period in the Southern hemisphere is not homo-
geneous. The same is true, though in a less degree, of the
Northern. Thus, if we include India in the latter, the ele-
phant is a Pliocene form, and the true rhinoceros Upper Mio-
cene. In the Northern hemisphere the dogs are Miocene.
In North America, the opossum, and probably the raccoon,
are Eocene ; the wolves and foxes appeared in the Miocene
age, and the weasels in the Pliocene. Perhaps the cats first
appeared in the American Pliocene. Comparatively few
mammalian types mark, by their origin, the latest geologic
epochs. Such are the ruminants, as deer and oxen, with the
true horses, which all commence in the Upper Pliocene of the
Northern hemisphere. Finally, man alone signalizes the last
or glacial period, and is to reach his culmination in the ages
that intervene between that great time-boundary and one to
come. Thus a certain proportion only of the life of a given
epoch is characteristic of it that is, originates in it ; the re-
maining members being legacies from preceding ages. Hence
the latest forms of life embraced in an extinct fauna are the
true indicators of the chronological relations of that fauna.
The total number of North American Cretaceous Vertebrates
enumerated and described is 253, of which 97 are fishes, 147
reptiles, and 9 are birds. No mammals have yet been dis-
covered.

Whether thoroughbred stock of old and well-established
herds ever reverts to the original type is called in question

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. ccix

by Professor Brewer, as he asserts that there is no proof of
this " dogma." He thinks that the practical breeders of thor-
oughbred stock (of whatever kind) commonly believe that so
long as the breed is kept pure and no other blood mingled,
that, although the animals may vary greatly in excellence,
all of them will have the essential characters which distin-
guish that breed from all other breeds or " types." On the
other hand, many persons (not breeders of thoroughbred
stock so far as he knows) have asserted that, if neglected, any
breed will " revert to the original type." That grade ani-
mals often " revert," that curious freaks and sports often at-
tend violent crossing (and also that breeds deteriorate under
bad management or bad conditions), are well enough known ;
but these facts do not affect the specific questions asked (in
a printed circular), where the blood is supposed to have been
kept strictly pure.

The address of Mr. Sclater before the section of Biology
of the British Association for the Advancement of Science
was on "The Present State of our Knowledge of Geograph-
ical Zoology." It was restricted to the Vertebrates, but is a
useful discourse.

"Bats and their Young" is the title of an article by Pro-
fessor B. G.Wilder in the Popular Science Monthly r , and con-
tains much new material regarding the early stages of these
animals. He has also contributed to the American Journal
of Science a description of a foetal manatee.

Important monographic accounts of the Saccomyidce the
group of Pouched Mice and the Geomyidw, or Gophers,have
been published by Dr. Coues ; while Mr. J. A. Allen has pub-
lished in the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural
History a synopsis of American Xeporidce, or Hares, the pres-
ent paper being an abstract of a monograph now in prep-
aration. Several papers on new or little-known mammals
by different writers are contained in the Proceedings of the
Zoological Society of London and other serials.

A new fossil Lemur has been described in the Proceedings
of the Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia by Professor
Cope, from the Eocene and Tertiary deposits of the Rocky
Mountains. It belongs to a type which he had originally
shown to have relations with the Procyonidm and other re-
lated low forms of Carnivora. Professor Cope has also dis-

CCX GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

covered in one of the Pliocene formations of the West a new
species of dog of large size, which he calls Canis ursinns.

Professor Cope has discussed the phylogeny of the camels,
based on several genera of fossil camels exclusively North
American, as no well-determined form of this group has been
found fossil in the Old World. Until such are discovered,
there will be much ground for supposing that the camels of
the Old World were derived from American ancestors; while
the presence of the llamas in the existing South American
fauna indicates the absence there of the conditions which
caused their extermination from North America. A new spe-
cies of Mastodon has also been described by Professor Cope,
from New Mexico, discovered while he was attached to
Wheeler's survey.

A gorilla, exported to Hamburg, where it soon died, has
been preserved in spirits, and is to form the subject of a
monograph by Dr. Bolau, by whom several important and
doubtful points in the anatomy of the anthropoid apes may
be settled.

The embryological history of man, as compared with other
vertebrates, has been treated of in a popular work by Haeckel,
entitled " Anthropogeny, or the Developmental History of
Mankind." The work is being translated into English.

BOTANY.

Insectivorous Plants. Three ways are now recognized by
which plants entrap insects. First, as in Dio?icea nwiscijmla,
or Venus's fly-trap, where the two blades of the leaf close
rapidly together, and the cilia upon the edges interlock so as
to imprison any insect which may happen to be inside; sec-
ond, as in different species of Drosera, where the leaves are
covered with hairs, at whose tips is a sticky exudation by
which insects are caught ; third, as in different species of
Utricularia, where the leaves are furnished with small blad-
ders, into which small insects crawl, but are prevented from
leaving by a peculiar arrangement of hairs around the orifice.
In Dionrca there are three highly sensitive hairs in the cen-
tre of the two lateral portions of the upper-part leaf, and the
closing of the leaf takes place when insects or foreign bodies
come in contact with these hairs. In addition to the highly
sensitive hairs just mentioned, there are also glands on the

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. ccxi

upper surface of the leaf which secrete au acid juice by which
the captured insects are digested. In Drosera, when any-
body has been caught by the sticky fluid at the end of a hair,
an impulse is conveyed through the hair to those on other
parts of the leaf, which causes them to bend over until they
touch the object caught. They then secrete an acid juice by
which it is digested. In Utricularia, the insects caught in
the leaf-bladders slowly decompose. Darwin has made very
careful investigations on the process of digestion in Drosera
and Dionasa, and comes to the conclusion that the secreted
fluid in both cases is closely allied to, if not identical with,
the gastric juice. Although contact of almost any foreign
body will cause, in one case, the hairs to bend over toward
it, in the other the leaf itself to close suddenly, the digestive
power of the secreted fluids in both cases is only capable of
digesting nitrogenous substances. Salts of ammonia seem to
have the greatest effect on the hairs of Drosera, and espe-
cially phosphate of ammonia, extremely minute quantities of
which have a powerful effect. The leaves of both Drosera
and Dionoea seem to be insensible to falling drops of rain and
currents of air.

Distribution of Seeds. At the request of M.Alphonse de
Candolle, a number of experiments were made by M. G. Thu-
ret, of Antibes, France, to ascertain how long different seeds
and fruits would float on salt water. He concludes, contrary
to the opinion of Martins, that distribution of plants by
means of ocean currents can take place only to a very lim-
ited extent, as in by far the greater number of his experi-
ments seeds and fruits sank either at once or in a few days.
M. Thuret also experimented on the power of germination of
seeds after continued immersion in salt water. Out of the
seeds of thirty-three species, which w T ere immersed for thir-
teen months, twenty-four were in good condition and w T ere
sown in pots. Of these twenty-four, ten grew.

Disease of Orange -trees. The orange-trees of California
have lately been attacked by the fungus Capnodium Citri,
Berk, and Desm. The disease is recognized by the leaves
being covered w T ith a blackish powdery substance, which
can without difficulty be wiped oft*. At the same time a
disease attacked the olive-trees. The name given to the
fungus in the latter case is Antennaria daiophila* This is

CCxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

probably only a sterile form of the fungus found on the
orange-trees. A similar disease also attacks the guava. The
disease of the olives has been known for a Ions* time in the
south of France, but no remedy lias been proposed. The
disease of the orange is known to occur in several tropical
countries.

Male and Female Organs in Agarics. Almost simultaneous-
ly, the discovery of antheridia and carpogonia in species of
Coprinus, a kind of toadstool growing on dung, has been an-
nounced by Professor Max Rees in his inaugural address at
Erlangen, and by Professor P. Van Tieghem in the Comptes
Rendus ; and farther details have been given by E. Eidam
in the Botanische Zeitimg. Some of the spores of Coprinus
germinate and produce tufts of antheridia, while others bear
round cells with a slight projecting point, which are the car-
pogonia. The contact of the antherozoids with the carpogo-
nia causes a change in the latter, which grow up into the
visible stem and pileus of the Coprinus. This recalls the
process of fertilization in the Ascomycetes.

Red Snow Plant. The red snow plant (Hcematococcus, or
Protococcus nivalis) has been shown in a paper by Dr.
Joseph Rostafinsky, published in the Memoirs of the Acade-
my of Sciences of Cherbourg, to be identical with the com-
mon Ha&matococcus pluvialis, and the name applied by him
to both is Hcematococcus lacustris. The plant is propagated
by zoospores, of which there are two kinds ; but, in spite of
the opinion of Velter, there is no copulation of zoospores in
this case. The amount of cold which the zoospores of this
plant will endure without apparent injury is something ex-
traordinary. They have been known to be frozen solid, and
yet recover on melting of the ice about them.

Effects of the same Temperature upon Plants of Different
Latitudes. It having been asserted that vegetation is more
promptly acted upon by the rise of temperature in spring
in higher than in lower latitudes, M. Alphonse de Candolle
reported in the Comptes Rendus some experiments on the
subject. Seeds of three or four different annuals were sent
from Northern and Southern Europe to Geneva. In one of
the species the northern seed developed first. Again, branch-
es of poplar, tulip-tree, and catalpa were sent from Montpel-
lier to Geneva, and paired with similar branches taken from

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. ccxiii

trees at Geneva. Both sets of branches were then placed in
a cold room until they were penetrated by the same temper-
ature, and then placed in glasses of water and removed to a
warm room. The result was that the branches from trees
growing at Geneva leafed out earlier by from eighteen to
twenty-three days than those brought from Montpellier. M.
De Candolle assigns two reasons for this precocity. First,
he thinks that there has been a natural selection of the buds.
The buds of a tree are in a continual struggle. The later,
like the badly placed ones, develop imperfect branches, which
are often stifled. The most precocious prevail, unless indeed
they suffer from frost. In this way comes a selection, and a
successive adaptation of the tree to the climate. How far
this selection applies is a little doubtful, for the precocity is
as likely to be disadvantageous as advantageous in a north-
ern climate. The cause of the difference in the vegetation
of northern and southern individuals is probably the more
complete hibernal repose of the former, rendering them more
susceptible to the heat of spring.

Potato Rot, The oospores of the fungus which causes the
potato rot (Peronospora infestans) have been discovered by
Mr. Worthington Smith, of England. They are found in the
substance of the potato leaves, where they form black spots.
They occur more frequently in the leaves of American varie-
ties of potatoes than in others. The fungus was at first sup-
posed to be a Protomyces; but Mr. Smith, by macerating the
leaves, found bodies similar to those described by De Bary
as the oospores of species of Peronosporae. As a practical
result of this discovery, farmers need have no fear of plant-
ing potatoes after grain or clover, against which they had
been warned, as the rot is not propagated by these crops.
Also the stems and leaves of infected plants should be re-
moved as soon as possible. The potato rot made its appear-
ance in California, for the first time it is believed, in the
month of May last, at least two months earlier than its usual
appearance in the Middle and New England States.

Plum-Pockets. The curious disease known in Germany as
Pflaumen Narren, or Taschen, was observed near Boston in
the month of June. The disease is caused by a fungus,
Ascomyces Pruni, which distorts the young plums, making
them appear at first swollen and then wrinkled. On cutting

CCxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

the fruit open it is found to be hollow. The disease is not
uncommon in Germany, and has been reported in New Bruns-
wick. The fungus is closely related to Ascomyces defor-
mans, which attacks peach leaves, making them curl up.

Diseases of Forest Trees. In the Wichtige Krankheiten
der Waldbdume Hartig gives an interesting account of some
of the diseases of European forest trees. He mentions, among
other fungi injurious to coniferous trees, Agaricus melleits,
and considers that the sclerotium form known as P/tizo-
morpha subcorticalis is nothing but a state of the myceli-
um of this species. It is curious to note how very large a
proportion of fungi, recognized as injurious to forest trees,
attack species of Coniferae. According to the views of Har-
tig, not only are the different members of the order Uredi-
neae, as ^Ecidium Pini, Pers., Cceoma pinitorquum, A. Br.,
Cceoma Laricis, R. H'rtg., found injurious to coniferous trees,
but also members of the orders Hymenomycetes and Asco-
mycetes. Of the former order, Agaricus melleus, L. Trame-
tes Pini, Fr., and Trametes raciperda, R. EPrtg., are particu-
larly mentioned as injurious to Coniferae; but the former
species, at least, also attacks other kinds of trees as well. Of
the Ascomycetes attacking Coniferse, Peziza Wittkommii, R.
H'rtg., is peculiar to the larch.

Club-foot in Turnips. Farmers have long been familiar
with a diseased form of turnip-roots in which they swell up
and become very crooked and ill-shaped. This was supposed
to be caused by the attacks of some insect, and, in fact, such
roots when harvested are almost always found to be covered
with insects. M. Woronin, of St. Petersburg, near which city
the disease has just made its appearance, has investigated
the subject, and comes to the conclusion that the trouble is
caused by some vegetable organism, hitherto unknown, re-
sembling in some respects the Myxomycetes, in others the
Chytridinese.

Growth of the Vegetable Cell. Dr. Moritz Traube, at the
meeting of German physicians and naturalists at Breslau,
gave some account of experiments with artificial cells. When
two colloid substances, which give precipitates with one an-
other, are brought together in solution in such a way that a
drop of one is introduced into a mass of the other, a pelli-
cle is formed around the drop. Traube made use of a sola-

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. ccxv

tion of tannic acid, into which he let fall a drop of a solu-
tion of glue. An artificial cell-wall was then formed around
the drop, which gradually enlarged. Taking this as equiva-
lent to a parenchymatous cell of a plant, Traube concludes
that the wall of the cell arises by chemical precipitation, and
that growth of the cell-wall is by intussusception. In the
Botanische Zeitung for June 25, Reinke gives an account of
some exj3eriments which he thinks confirm Traube's view of
the growth of the cell-membrane by intussusception.

The Schwendener Theory of Lichens. The theory of the algo-
fungological nature of lichens, first proposed by Schwende-
ner, has many advocates and as many opponents. Among the
advocates is M. Bornet, whose account of the gonidia of lich-
ens appeared a year and a half ago in the Annates des Sci-
ences / he has since published a second note on the subject, in
which he mentions that he has seen cases of Opegrapha varia,
Pers., in which the gonidia have produced the sporangia prop-
er to Trentepohlia (Chroolepus Auct.). On the other hand,
Dr. G.W. Korber gives the following reasons for his belief that
the gonidia of lichens are not algse : First, in true algae the
gonidia never produce hyphse, while this is of common occur-
rence in the spores of lichens; second, that if the contrary were
true, it is strange that in every lichen several types of algae
are necessary for the production of the lichen, and still more
strange that in nature these various algae occur without any
further result; third, because many forms of gonidia are not
known to algologists as such, because they have never been
seen in a free state ; fourth, because the lichen gonidia cor-
respond in their forms only to those algse which reproduce
themselves by division, and not to those w r hich propagate by
sexual reproduction, the former process being only a physio-
logical one common to many or all lower vegetable cells, and
destitute of systematic value. The question is by no means
settled as yet, for, although the advocates of the theory do
not include many leading lichenologists (including under that
term those who devote themselves exclusively to the determi-
nation and description of species of lichens), it does include
the majority of the best vegetable histologists in Europe.
It is often said that, w r ere the theory true, the professional
lichenologists would be the first to recognize it, as they have
had a much larger experience than others. The contrary,

ccxvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND

however, seems to be the fact. The lichenologists, as the
term is generally applied, look at the question from one side
only. Their object is to describe and arrange large numbers
of species, not to follow out the details of the development
of any one. In classifying their species, the professional lich-
enologists have made use principally of the fruit, and paid
but little attention to the gonidia. It is the presence of go-
nidia which, even according to the lichenologists, is charac-
teristic of the lichen rather than the fruit, which is, as is ad-
mitted by every one, precisely similar to that of the ascomy-
cetous fungi. The structure of the gonidia and their devel-
opment has been vastly better made out by Schwendener
and Bornet than by any of the lichenologists proper, who, in-
stead of giving good figures and accurate descriptions of the
growth of the gonidia from the hyphse, which they maintain
takes place, are satisfied with the mere statement that some
one or other, not noted for his skill at the microscope, has
seen, or thinks he has seen, this growth. If such an organic
union between the hyphre and gonidia exists, certainly skillful
microscopists, whether lichenologists or not, ought to be able
to see it. But such is not the case. If the Schwendener
theory is not tenable, the only feasible theory is that of Pro-
fessor Theodore Fries, who believes lichens are bodies con-
sisting of hyphae, or threads, and gonidia, and that the latter
can exist without the former, and when found free have been
erroneously considered algse by some botanists; that is to
say, the Oscillariea?, the Palmellese, and other groups of algge,
are not really alga? at all, but gonidia of some lichen which
have escaped and are living free. This view might be con-
sidered the true one were the gonidia of lichens limited to
such forms as Oscillaria, Rivularia, and Palmella, whose
method of reproduction differs somewhat from that of plants
which are universally recognized as algse. But in the genus
Opegrapha the gonidia correspond in appearance to a genus
of alga3 known as Chroolepus, and M. Bornet has shown that
they are propagated in the same way. Now Chroolepus is
nearly related to Cladophora, and many other genera of un-
doubted alga?; and if we suppose that Chroolepus is nothing
but an escaped form of lichen-gonidia, we must make the
same supposition with regard to Cladophora, Chaitomorpha,
and other genera which live in both salt and fresh water,

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1875. ccxvii

and have never been found united with any hyphae. Such
a supposition is, of course, entirely out of the question.

Copulation of Zoospores. Professor J. E. Areschoug, of Up-
sala, has observed the conjugation of zoospores in Dictyosi-
phon hippuroides, Lyngb. This is the first member of the
large group of Phaeosporae, which includes such large plants
as the devil's apron of the east coast and the great kelp of
California, as well as a multitude of minute filamentous spe-
cies in which any sexual process has been discovered. Pro-
fessors Areschoug, Pringsheim, and others, have already re-
ported several cases of conjugation of zoospores in the Zoo-
spore, which resemble the Phseosporae as far as their zoospores
are concerned.

Marine Algse of the United States. Dr. E. Palmer has made
some interesting additions to the United States marine flora
during his stay at Key West. He found growing abundant-
ly Sargassum dentifoHum, previously known only in the Red
Sea, and therefore not to be looked for in the United States ;
also a single specimen of a Polyphysa, an Australian genus.
At Nassau he found Cystoseira myrica, also of the Red Sea,